History of Coffee Essay

java bean is virtuoso of the macrocosms most poplar drunkennesss. Some claim it is the most widely consumed legato in the world aside from water. cocoa bean is to a greater extent than a drunkenness , n wizardtheless. It is a memory , anticipation, a life measure of consoling moments of modest joyfulness woven into our stand firms. Coffees success as a beverage undoubtedly owes both to the caffein it harbors and to its sensory pleasure. Coffee lovers come to concord the energizing lift of the caffeine with richness and aroma of the beverage that delivers it.Coffee is taken in more than 50 countries around the world and the of im demeanor mer backsidefultile crop of over a dozen countries, half of which earns 25% to 50% of their foreign exchange revenue from java bean trades. More than 10 billion pounds of umber berry beans be grown per year, providing more than 20 one million million jobs. Coffee is original to Ethiopia and was most likely discovered as a food before it became a imbibition. The most popular legend of how hot chocolate bean bean berry berry tree was discovered involves an Abyssinian goat herder named kaldi. Kaldi awoke one night to find his goats dance around a tree speckled with red cherries.When he understandingd one of the cherries, he too started dancing with the goats. As inte time outing as this study may be it is more likely that hot chocolate was utilize as a food supplement by wandering Ethiopian tribes-men. The tribes-men ar said to fuddle squashed the coffee tree cherries and carried them on long journeys, feeding them for nourishment as needed. Later, the coffee cherries were soaked in water, possibly to bedevil wine, but some(prenominal) historians say it was non until 1000 AD, when the Arabs discovered how to boil, that coffee was serve hot.Coffee was as well believed to invite medicinal properties. Avicenna, an Islamic medico and philosopher of the eleventh century, said of coffee I t fortifies the members, it cleans the contend and dries up the humilities that be under(a) it, and gives an excellent smell to every the body CHAPTER 1 HISTORY OF coffee berry HISTORY OF coffee pic Palestinian women grinding coffee the old make way, 1905 The history of coffee goes at least as far patronise as the fifteenth century, though coffees extractions re main unclear.It had been believed that Ethiopian ancestors of todays Oromo people were the initial to have discovered and acknowledge the energizing effect of the coffee bean set out. However, no direct tell apart has been effect indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have utilize it as a stimulant or even cognize approximately it, earlier than the 17th century. The story of Kaldi, the 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee, did not appear in paternity until 1671 and is probably apocryphal. From Ethiopia, coffee was said to have extend to Egypt and Yemen.The arl iest credible evidence of either coffee boozing or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee beans were wretched gearborn off roasted and brewed, in a similar way to how it is now prepargond. By the 16th century, it had r from each oneed the rest of the Middle easternmost, Persia, Turkey, and Union Africa. Coffee on that pointfore pass around to Italy, and to the rest of europium, to Indonesia, and tothe Americas. Origins Etymology The news program coffee entered English in 1598 via Dutch koffie.This word was created via Turkish kahve, the Turkish pronunciation Arabic qahwa, a truncation of qahhwat al-bun or wine of the bean. atomic number 53 possible stem of the name is the Kingdom of Kaffa in Ethiopia, where the coffee plant originated its name in that location is bunn or bunna. Legendary accounts. There ar several(prenominal) legendary accounts of the origin of t he drink itself. One account involves the Yemenite Sufi undercover Shaikh ash-Shadhili. When traveling in Ethiopia, the legend goes he observed goats of unusual vitality, and, upon act the berries that the goats had been eating, experienced the said(prenominal) vitality.A similar Legend of Dancing Goats attributes the husking of coffee to an Ethiopian goatherder named Kaldi. The story of Kaldi did not appear in writing until 1671, and these stories be considered to be apocryphal. It used to be believed Ethiopian ancestors of todays Oromo tribe, were the premiere to have accept the energizing effect of the native coffee plant.Studies of genetic diversity have been performed on genus genus genus genus genus genus Coffea arabica varieties, found to be of low diversity but which retained some residual heterozygosity from contractable materials, and closely-related diploid species Coffea canephora and C.liberica however, no direct evidence has ever been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant, or known about it there, earlier than the septetteteenth century.The Moslem world The earliest credible evidence of either coffee potable or knowledge Of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southerly Arabia.It was in Yemen that coffee beans were prototypical roasted and brewed as they atomic number 18 today. From Mocha, coffee short-circuit to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Moslem world, coffee drinking blossom out to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas. Syrian Bedouin from a beehive village in Aleppo, Syria, sipping the traditional murra (bitter) coffee, 1930.The earliest reference point of coffee noteworthy by the literary coffee merchant Philippe Sylves tre Dufour is a reference to bunchum in the works of the 10th century CE Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, known as Rhazes in the West, but more explicit information on the preparation of a beverage from the roasted coffee berries dates from several centuries subsequent. The most important of the primordial writers on coffee was io-de-caprio, who in 1587 compiled a work tracing the history and legitimate controversies of coffee entitle Umdat al safwa fi hill al-qahwa.He reported that one Sheikh, Jamal-al-Din al-Dhabhani, mufti of Aden, was the graduation to evolve the use of coffee (circa 1454). Coffees usefulness in driving away sleep made it popular among Sufis. A translation traces the spread of coffee from Arabia Felix (the present day Yemen) northward to Mecca and Medina, and then to the larger cities of Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, and Istanbul. Coffee beans were first exported from Ethiopia to Yemen. Yemeni trafficrs brought coffee affirm to their homela nd and began to cultivate the bean. The first coffeehouse overt in Istanbul in 1554.Coffee was at first not well received. In 1511, it was forbidden for its stimulate effect by conservative, orthodox imams at a theological court in Mecca. However, the popularity of the drink led these illegalizes to be overturned in 1524 by an order of the fairy Turkish grand Turk Selim I, with Grand Mufti Mehmet Ebussuud el-Imadi issuing a celebrated fatwa allowing the expending of coffee. In Cairo, Egypt, a similar ban was instituted in 1532, and the coffeehouses and w behouses containing coffee beans were sacked. Similarly, coffee was tabu by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church some time before the 12th century.However, in the second half of the 19th century, Ethiopian attitudes softened towards coffee drinking, and its consumption spread rapidly between 1880 and 1886 harmonize to Richard Pankhurst, this was largely due to Emperor Menilek, who himself drank it, and to Abuna Matewos who did oft en to dispel the belief of the clergy that it was a Muslim drink. Europe pic Dutch engraving of Mocha in 1692 Coffee was noted in whiff Aleppo by the German physician botanist Leonhard Rauwolf, the first European to mention it, as chaube, in 1573 Rauwolf was closely followed by descriptions from different European travellers.Coffee was first imported to Italy from the Ottoman Empire. The vibrant trade between Venice and the Muslims in North Africa, Egypt, and the East brought a large pastiche of African goods, including coffee, to this leading European port. Venetian merchants introduced coffee-drinking to the wealthy in Venice, charging them severely for the beverage. In this way, coffee was introduced to Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted afterwards controversy over whether it was acceptable during Lent was settled in its privilege by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the drink.The first European coffee house (apart from those in the Ottoman Empire, mentioned above) was throwed in Venice in 1645. England Largely through the efforts of the British East India confederation and the Dutch East India phoner, coffee became available in England no later than the 16th century according to Leonhard Rauwolfs 1583 account. The first coffeehouse in England was opened in St. Michaels Alley in Cornhill. The proprietor was Pasqua Rosee, the retainer of Daniel Edwards, a trader in Turkish goods. Edwards imported the coffee and assisted Rosee in setting up the establishment.Oxfords Queens path Coffee House, established in 1654, is still in existence today. By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses end-to-end England. Popularity of coffeehouses spread rapidly in Europe, and later, America. The banning of women from coffeehouses was not universal, but does appear to have been common in Europe. In Ger legion(predicate) women frequented them, but in England they were banned. some believed coffee to have several medicinal properties in this period. For example, a 1661 tract entitled A character of coffee and coffee-houses, written by one M. P. , lists some of these perceived virtuesNot everyone was in favour of this new commodity, however. For example, the anonymous 1674 Womens Petition against Coffee stated France Antoine Galland (1646-1715) in his aforementioned translation described the Muslim association with coffee, tea leaf and chocolate We atomic number 18 indebted to these great Arab physicians for introducing coffee to the modern world through their writings, as well as sugar, tea, and chocolate. Galland reported that he was assured by Mr. de la Croix, the interpreter of King Louis XIV of France, that coffee was brought to capital of France by a certain(prenominal) Mr. Thevenot, who had travelled through the East.On his restitution to that city in 1657, Thevenot gave some of the beans to his friends, one of whom was de la Croix. However, the major spread of the popularity of this beverage in Paris was soon to come. In 1669, Soleiman Agha, ambassador from Sultan Mehmed IV, arrived in Paris with his entourage bringing with him a large total of coffee beans. Not only did they provide their french and European guests with coffee to drink, but they also donated some beans to the royal court. Between July 1669 and May 1670, the Ambassador managed to firmly establish the custom of drinking coffee among Parisians. pic.Melange in capital of Austria Austria The first coffeehouse in Austria opened in Vienna in 1683 after the Battle of Vienna, by using supplies from the spoils obtained after defeating the Turks. The military officer who received the coffee beans, Polish military officer of Ukrainian origin Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki, opened the coffee house and helped popularize the custom of adding sugar and draw to the coffee. Until recently, this was celebrated in Viennese coffeehouses by hanging a learn of Kulczycki in the window. Melange is the typical Viennese coffee, which c omes immix with hot foamed milk and a glass of water.Netherlands The race among Europeans to make off with some live coffee trees or beans was eventually won by the Dutch in the late 17th century, when they allied with the natives of Kerala against the Portuguese and brought some live plants back from Malabar to Holland, where they were grown in greenhouses. The Dutch began growing coffee at their forts in Malabar, India, and in 1699 took some to Batavia in deep brown, in what is now Indonesia. Within a few historic period the Dutch colonies (Java in Asia, Surinam in Americas) had vex the main suppliers of coffee to Europe. Americas.Gabriel de Clieu brought coffee seedlings to Martinique in the Caribbean circa 1720. Those sprouts flourished and 50 geezerhood later there were 18,680 coffee trees in Martinique enabling the spread of coffee kitchen-gardening to Haiti, Mexico and new(prenominal) islands of the Caribbean. Coffee also found its way to the island of Reunion in the I ndian Ocean known as the Isle of Bourbon. The plant pleadd teentsyer beans and was deemed a different variety of Arabica known as var. Bourbon. The Santos coffee of Brazil and the Oaxaca coffee of Mexico be the progeny of that Bourbon tree.Circa 1727, the Emperor of Brazil sent Francisco de Mello Palheta to French guinea fowl to obtain coffee seeds to become a part of the coffee market. Francisco ab initio had difficulty obtaining these seeds yet he captivated the French Governors wife and she in turn, sent him enough seeds and shoots which would commence the coffee fabrication of Brazil. In 1893, the coffee from Brazil was introduced into Kenya and Tanzania (Tanganyika), not far from its place of origin in Ethiopia, 600 years prior, ending its transcontinental journey. The French colonial woodlets relied heavily on African slave laborers.Ancient Production of coffee The first step in Europeans wresting the elbow room of returnion was do by Nicolaes Witsen, the energetic bu rgomaster of Amsterdam and member of the governing board of the Dutch East India Company who urged Joan van Hoorn, the Dutch governor at Batavia that some coffee plants be obtained at the export port of Mocha in Yemen, the source of Europes supply, and established in the Dutch East Indies the project of nurture many plants from the seeds of the first shipment met with such(prenominal) success that the Dutch East India Company was able to supply Europes demand with Java coffee by 1719.Encouraged by their success, they soon had coffee plantations in Ceylon Sumatra and other(a) Sunda islands. Coffee trees were soon grown under glass at the Hortus Botanicus of Leiden, whence slips were generously extended to other botanical gardens. Dutch representatives at the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Utrecht presented their French counterparts with a coffee plant, which was grown on at the Jardin du Roi, predecessor of the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris.The introduction of coffee to the Americas was effected by Captain Gabriel des Clieux, who obtained cuttings from the reluctant botanist Antoine de Jussieu, who was loath to impair the kings coffee tree. Clieux, when water rations dwindled during a difficult voyage, shared his portion with his precious plants and protected them from a Dutchman, perhaps an agent of the Provinces greedy of the Batavian trade.Clieux nurtured the plants on his arrival in the West Indies, and established them in Guadeloupe and Saint- Domingue in addition to Martinique, where a blight had struck the cacao plantations, which were replaced by coffee plantations in a plaza of three years, is attributed to France through its colonization of many parts of the continent starting with the Martinique and the colonies of the West Indies where the first French coffee plantations were founded. The first coffee plantation in Brazil occurred in 1727 when Lt. Col.Francisco de Melo Palheta smuggle seeds, still essentially from the germ plasm origi nally taken from Yemen to Batavia, from French Guiana. By the 1800s, Brazils harvests would turn coffee from an elite lenience to a drink for the masses. Brazil, which like most other countries cultivates coffee as a commercial commodity, relied heavily on slave labor from Africa for the viability of the plantations until the abolishment of slavery in 1888. The success of coffee in 17th-century Europe was paralleled with the spread of the habit of tobacco smoking all over the continent during the score of the Thirty Years War (161848).For many decades in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Brazil was the biggest producer of coffee and a virtual monopolizer in the trade. However, a policy of maintaining high prices soon opened opportunities to other nations, such as Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Indonesia and Vietnam, now second only to Brazil as the major coffee producer in the world. Large-scale production in Vietnam began following normalization of trade relations with the US in 1995. almost all of the coffee grown there is Robusta.Despite the origins of coffee finis in Ethiopia, that country produced only a small amount for export until the Twentieth Century, and much of that not from the south of the country but from the surroundings of Harar in the northeast. The Kingdom of Kaffa, home of the plant, was estimated to produce between 50,000 and 60,000 kilograms of coffee beans in the 1880s. Commercial production effectively began in 1907 with the founding of the inland port of Gambela, and greatly increased afterwards 100,000 kilograms of coffee was exported from Gambela in 1908, while in 1927-8 over 4 million kilograms passed through that port.Coffee plantations were also essential in Arsi Province at the same time, and were eventually exported by means of the Addis Ababa Djibouti Railway. While only 245,000 kilograms were freighted by the Railway, this amount jumped to 2,240,000 kilograms by 1922, surpassed exports of Harari coffee by 1925, and r eached 9,260,000 kilograms in 1936. Australia is a minor coffee producer, with little product for export, but its coffee history goes back to 1880 when the first of 500 body politic (2. 0km2) began to be developed in an area between northern New South Wales and Cooktown.Today there are several producers of Arabica coffee in Australia that use a mechanical harvesting system invented in 1981. *** CHAPTER 2 INSIGHT ON COFFEE INSIGHT ON COFFEE Coffee pic Roasted coffee beans Type Hot or stone-cold beverage Country of origin Ethiopia, andYemen Introduced Approx. 15th century AD (beverage) modify Brown Coffeeis abreweddrinkprepared from roastedseeds, unremarkably calledcoffee beans, of thecoffee plant. They are seeds of coffee cherries that grow on trees in over 70 countries. Green coffee, for example, is one of the most traded awkward commodities in the world.Due to itscaffeinecontent, coffee can have a stimulating effect in humans. Today, coffee is one of the most popular be verages worldwide. It is image that the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant was first recognized inYemenin Arabia and the north east ofEthiopia, and the glossiness of coffee first expanded in the Arabworld. The earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in theSufimonasteries of theYemenin southernArabia. From theMuslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, toIndonesia, and to the Americas.Coffee has contend an important role in many societies throughout history. In Africa and Yemen, it was used in religious ceremonies. As a result, theEthiopian Churchbanned its secular consumption until the reign of EmperorMenelik II of Ethiopia. It was banned inOttomanTurkey during the 17th century for political reasons,and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe. Coffee berries, which contain the coffee bean, are produced by several species of smallevergreenbush of thegenusCoffea. The 2 most c ommonly grown areCoffea canephora(also known asCoffea robusta) andCoffea arabica.Both are cultivated primarily inLatinAmerica,Southeast Asia, and Africa. Once in force(p), coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for 12 countries in 2004,and in 2005, it was the worlds seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value. Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment.Many studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and certain medical conditions whether the overall do of coffee are ultimately positive or negative has been widely disputed. However, the mode of create from raw material coffee has been found to be important. Biology Several species of shrub o f the genusCoffeaproduce the berries from which coffee is extracted.The two main cultivated species,Coffea canephora(also known asCoffea robusta) andC. arabica, are native to subtropical Africa and southern Asia. slight popular species areC.liberica,excelsa,stenophylla,mauritiana, andracemosa.They are classified in the large familyRubiaceae. They areevergreenshrubs or small trees that may grow 5m (15ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, normally 1015cm (4-6in) long and 6cm (2. 4in) wide. Clusters of fragrant flannel f lours bloom simultaneously and are followed by oval berries of about 1. 5cm. Green when immature, they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turning black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 510% of the berrieshave only one these are calledpeaberries.Berries ripen in seven to nine months. Cultivation Coffee is usually propagated by seeds. The traditional method of planting coffee is to put 20seeds in each pile at the beginni ng of therainy season half are eliminated naturally. A more effective method of growing coffee, used in Brazil, is to increase seedlings in nurseries, which are then planted outside at 6 to 12months. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice, during the first few years of cultivation. pic.Map showing areas of coffee cultivation rCoffea canephora mCoffea canephoraandCoffea arabica aCoffea arabica Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (fromC. arabica) is considered more suitable for drinking than robusta coffee (fromC. canephora) robusta tends to be bitter and have less flavor but repair body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide isC. arabica. However,C. canephorais less suggestible to disease thanC. arabicaand can be cultivated inenvironmentswhereC. arabicawill not thrive. Robusta coffee also contains about 4050% more caffeine than arabica.For this reason, it is used as an inexpensive substitut e for arabica in many commercial coffee blends. Good quality robustas are used in someespressoblends to provide a develop foam head, a full-bodied result, and to lower the ingredient cost. The speciesCoffea libericaandCoffea esliacaare believed to be indigenous toLiberiaand southernSudan, respectively. Most arabica coffee beans originate from eitherLatin America,eastern Africa, Arabia, or Asia. Robusta coffee beans are grown in western andcentral Africa, throughoutsoutheast Asia, and to some extent in Brazil.Beans from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by differences in flavor, aroma,body, or acidity. These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the coffees growing region, but also on genetic subspecies (varietals) and processing. Varietals are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such asColombian,JavaorKona. Production Brazilis the world draw in production of green coffee, followed byVietnamandColombiathe last of which produces a muchsofter coffee.Top twenty green coffee producers Tonnes (2007) and Bags thousands (2007) Country Tonnes Bags thousands picBrazil 2,249,010 36,070 picVietnam 961,200 16,467 picColombia 697,377 12,515 picIndonesia 676,475 7,751 picEthiopia 325,800 4,906 picIndia 288,000 4,148 picMexico 268,565 4,150 picGuatemala 252,000 4,100 picPeru 225,992 2,953 picHonduras 217,951 3,842 picCote dIvoire 170,849 2,150 picUganda 168,000 3,250 picCosta Rica 124,055 1,791 picPhilippines 97,877 431 picEl.Salvador 95,456 1,626 picNicaragua 90,909 1,700 picPapua New Guinea 75,400 968 picVenezuela 70,311 897 picMadagascarnote 2 62,000 604 picThailand 55,660 653 World 7,742,675 117,319 Ecological effects pic pic A floweringCoffea arabicatree in a Brazilian plantation Originally, coffee culture was done in theshadeof trees, which provided a home ground for many animals and insects. This method is commonly referred to as the traditional shaded method, or shade-grown.Many farmers switched their production method to sun cultivation, in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no timber canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but requires the glade of trees and increased use of fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause health problems. When compared to the sun cultivation method, traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce lower yields, but the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior.In addition, the traditional shaded method is environmentally friendly and provides living space for many wildlife species. Opponents of sun cultivation say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution,habitat destruction, and soil and water degradation are the side effects of these practices. TheAmerican Birding Association,Smithsonian Migratory Bird- Center, Rainforest Alliance, and theArbor Day Foundationhave led a campaign for shade-grown andorganic coffees, which it says are sustainably harvested.However, while certain types of shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, they still compare sickly to native forest in terms of habitat value. Another give away concerning coffee is itsuse of water. According toNew Scientist, if using industrial farming practices, it takes about 140 liters of water to grow the coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee, and the coffee is often grown in countries where there is a water shortage, such asEthiopia.By using sustainable agriculturemethods, the amount of water usagecan be dramatically reduced, while retaining corresponding yields. Coffee grounds may be used forcompostingor as amulch. They are especially appreciated bywormsandacid-loving plantssuch asblueberries. *** CHAPTER 3 TYPES OF COFFEE TYPES OF COFFEE Coffea Arabica scientific smorgasbord Kingdom Plantae (unranked) Angiosperms (unranked) Eudicots (unranked) Asterids Order Gentianales Family Rubiaceae Genus Coffea Species C. arabica binominal name Coffea arabica .Coffea arabica is a species of coffee originally indigenous to the mountains of Yemen in the Arabian Peninsula, hence its name, and also from the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia and southeastern Sudan. It is also known as the coffee shrub of Arabia, mountain coffee or arabica coffee. Coffea arabica is believed to be the first species of coffee to be cultivated, macrocosm grown in southwest Arabia for well over 1,000 years. It is considered to produce better coffee than the other major commercially grown coffee species, Coffea canephora (robusta). Arabica contains less caffeine than any other commercially cultivated species of coffee. ludicrous plants grow to between 9 and 12 m tall, and have an open branching system the leaves are opposite, simple elliptic-ovate to oblong, 612cm long and 48cm broad, glossy dark green. The flowers are white, 1015mm in diameter and gro w in axillary clusters. The issue is a drupe (though commonly called a berry) 1015mm in diameter, maturing bright red to color and typically contain two seeds (the coffee bean). Distribution and habitat Originally found in the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, Coffea arabica is now out of date there in its native state, and many populations appear to be mixed native and planted trees.It is common there as an understorey shrub. It has also been cured from the Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan. Coffea arabica is also found on Mt Marsabit in northern Kenya, but it is unclear whether this is a real native or naturalised occurrence. Yemen is also believed to have native Coffea arabica growing in fields. Cultivation Coffea arabica takes about seven years to mature fully and does outgo with 1- 1. 5 meters (about 40-59inches) of rain, evenly distributed throughout the year. It is usually cultivated between 1,300 and 1,500 m altitude, but there are plantations as low as sea level and as high as 2,800 m.The plant can tolerate low temperatures, but not frost, and it does best when the temperature hovers around 20 C (68 F). Commercial cultivars mostly only grow to about 5 m, and are frequently trimmed as low as 2 m to facilitate harvesting. Unlike Coffea canephora, Coffea arabica prefers to be grown in light shade. Two to four years after planting Coffea arabica produces small, white and highly fragrant flowers. The sassy fragrance resembles the sweet smell of jasmine flowers. When flowers open on sunny days, this results in the greatest numbers of berries.This can be a curse however as coffee plants tend to produce too many berries this can lead to an inferior harvest and even damage yield in the following years as the plant will favor the senescence of berries to the detriment of its own health. On well kept plantations this is prevented by dress the tree. The flowers themselves only last a few days leaving stern only the thick dark green leaves. The berr ies then begin to appear. These are as dark green as the foliage, until they begin to ripen, at first to yellow and then light red and finally darkening to a glossy deep red.At this point they are called cherries and are falsify for picking. The berries are oblong and about 1cm long. Inferior coffee results from picking them too early or too late, so many are picked by hand to be able to better shoot them, as they do not all ripen at the same time. They are sometimes shaken off the tree onto mats, which means that ripe and unripe berries are collected together. The trees are difficult to cultivate and each tree can produce anywhere from 0. 55kg of dried beans, depending on the trees individual character and the clime that season.The real prize of this cash crop are the beans inside. Each berry holds two locules containing the beans. The coffee beans are actually two seeds within the fruit there is sometimes a third seed or one seed, a peaberry in the fruits at tips of the branche s. These seeds are covered in two membranes, the outer one is called the parchment and the inner one is called the silver skin. In perfect conditions, like those of Java, trees are planted at all times of the year and are harvested year round. In less lofty conditions, like those in parts of Brazil, the trees have a season and are harvested only in winter.The plants are vulnerable to damage in brusque growing conditions and are also more vulnerable to pests than the Robusta plant. Gourmet coffees are almost exclusively high-quality mild varieties of coffea arabica, like Colombian coffee. Arabica coffee production in Indonesia began in 1699. Indonesian coffees, such as Sumatran and Java, are known for heavy body and low acidity. This makes them ideal for shading with the higher acidity coffees from Central America and East Africa. Coffea canephora Scientific classification Kingdom Plantae (unranked) Angiosperms (unranked) Eudicots (unranked) Asterids Order Gentianales Famil y Rubiaceae Genus Coffea .Species C. canephora Binomial name Coffea canephora Coffea canephora (Robusta Coffee Coffea robusta) is a species of coffee which has its origins in central and western subsaharan Africa. It is grown mostly in Africa and Brazil, where it is often called Conillon. It is also grown in Southeast Asia where French colonists introduced it in the late 19th century. In recent years Vietnam, which only produces robusta, has surpassed Brazil, India, and Indonesia to become the worlds single largest exporter.Approximately one third of the coffee produced in the world is robusta. Canephora is easier to care for than the other major species of coffee, Coffea arabica, and, because of this, is cheaper to produce. Since arabica beans are often considered superior, robusta is usually limited to lower grade coffee blends as filler. It is however often included in instant coffee, and in espresso blends to set ahead the formation of crema. Robusta has about twice as muc h caffeine as arabica.

Hyphenated American

Chinese the Statesns run to keep their separate identity In the unify States, at that place atomic number 18 multiple hyphenated Americans groups, such as African- American, Asian- American, Irish- American, and Indian- American. People hold American nationality, but experience a foreign birth or origins tend to identify themselves in some term of Hyphenated Americans. It means that they are not only Americans, but also involve in varied ethnicity, religion, address, and culture. Chinese- Americans comprises the largest ethnic group of Asian Americans.Most of the early Chinese workers immigrated from Guangdong province in china for the Gold Rush (Chinese Immigrants and the Gold Rush, n. d. ). Since 1865, lots of Chinese worker come to the linked States and worked on the famous Transcontinental railroad track project. The Chinese also worked as small merchants, gardener, laundry workers, farmers, and so on. to a gr tucker outer extent and more Chinese Americans immigrated with their children from mainland mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan(Chinese Historycal Society of Confederate California, 2010).The Chinese Americans try to keep their Chinese culture, quarrel, and community, and they tend to retain the separate identity. Chinese Americans tend to live together in their own culture community. gibe to the 2010 census, the Chinese American population was around 3. 8 million, and half of them lived any inCaliforniaorNew York ( flow Reporting for the Asian Population by Selected Categories 2010, 2010 ). The Chinatown in San Francisco was the oldest and largest Chinese community in the United States.People can find Chinese culture elements everywhere in the Chinatown, for example, herbal shops, temples, dragon parades, Chinese book store, Chinese restaurant, Chinese language school, and sluice Chinese hospital. People living in the Chinatown communicate in Chinese language, and live exactly the same life style as people in China. Chine se Americans in New York also have such community in the Flushing area, know as Chinatown. on that point are Chinese transportation companies travel agencies, and Chinese language school also. Almost every child in Chinese American family has attended Chinese language school after their regular school time.Their parents deprivation them to keep origins culture, so they will always remember that they are root in China. There is a Columbus Chinese Christian church in Columbus Ohio. Every Sunday, thousands of Chinese American Christians living in Columbus get together and model in the bible through with(predicate) t severallying, medical specialty, and worship. After the teaching, people share a big dinner of Chinese food. Most of them speak Chinese, and only the naked generations who were born in America prefer to speak English. many of the old immigrated Chinese American veritable(a) cannot speak English at all.Even though the kids speak English with each other, they can stil l speak frequently in Chinese with their parents. Chinese Americans stay in their own community to retain their culture, language, and customs. Chinese Americans are pride of their ethnic and culture. Music and dance are the common language among all human being. Chinese Americans hold Shen Yun performances all around the United States to spread Chinese art and music. Every year, students can see posts more or less Shen Yun performance on the wall around the OSU campus. The video Shen Yun 2013 Trailer on the Shen Yun website also shows some significant parts of the performance.Dancers wearing different styles of Chinese customal ancient clothes performed the Chinese cultures of different dynasty and different ethics. The music play by Chinese traditional instruments was as good as the dancing. As it said in the video, the aim of the performance is to revive 5000 geezerhood of divine civilization. It shows Chinese Americans strong sense of pride of Chinese culture. Many of the new generation of Chinese American, which is also known as American born Chinese (ABC), had a hard time to define themselves identity.A short story named The Paper Menagerie written by Ken Liu win the 2012 Hugo Awards. This short, bittersweet story describe Ken suffered a pain of having a Chinese born mom who was different with every elses mom, also, whose speech pattern and broken sentences embarrassed him (Ken, 2012). His mom taught him Chinese, cooked Chinese food, and made him Chinese tradition paper animals as toys. She liked to see the Chinese parts in her son. However, he hated his chink face and all the other Chinese parts from his mother. He refused to talk to her in Chinese even though she can barely speak English.After reading her lasting letter in spite of appearance the paper animals after his mothers death, Ken finally attend his mothers life and know how much she loved him (Ken, 2012). There is an America born Chinese girl Amy Tan who define herself a completely Amer ican, and she wants nothing to do with China. However, she actually struggled a lot virtually which country she truly proceeds to. Then she had a trip back to China with her mother. Tan said that once she touched Chinese soil, she better silent her connection to the land and to the country.She finally understood how she belongs to two cultures at the same, which hold back her comply her hyphenated identity, and view herself as a Chinese American. She said I discovered how American I was. I also discover how Chinese I was. I discovered a sense of finally be to a period of fib, which I never felt with American history. She realized that Once you were born Chinese, you cannot help but feel and call back Chinese (Lemontree, n. d. ). Ken and Amy all tried to refuse everything about China, and they want nothing to do with Chinese.Finally, somehow, they find the way to connect their Chinese hereditary pattern and American nationality, and they accept themselves as who they are. Am erican born Chinese new generation all suffered from an unexpected pain of trying to belong. They have Chinese faces they were mostly raised up in Chinese community and eat Chinese food they have Chinese friends and their family members speak Chinese at home. They dont know which nation and culture they truly belong to. Sometime they feel embarrassed about having such a different family, and try to integrate into the American society.Their parents hope they can hold the hyphenated identity, because they are pride of Chinese ethnic and culture. Young generations always refuse to do so, but the Chinese heritages do exist in their body, and will have influences on their life. They need to honor their ancestors culture and accept combination of being Chinese and American. Reference Chinese Historycal Society of Southern California. (2010). Retrieved on Nov. 21, 2012, from http//www. chssc. org/history/histtimeline. html Chinese Immigrants and the Gold Rush (n. d. ). Retrieved on Nov. 21 . 2012, from http//www. pbs. rg/wgbh/amex/goldrush/peopleevents/p_chinese. html Ken,L. (2011). The Paper Menagerie. Fantasy & Science Fiction. Retrieved on Nov. 21, 2012, from http//a1018. g. akamai. meshing/f/1018/19022/1d/randomhouse1. download. akamai. com/19022/pdf/Paper_Menagerie. pdf Lemontree. (n. d. ). Hyphenated Identity A Long Research Journey, Retrieved on Nov, 21, 2012, from http//ayjw. org/articles. php? id=696640 Race Reporting for the Asian Population by Selected Categories 2010. (2010). U. S. Census Bureau, Retrieved on Nov. 21, 2012, from http//factfinder2. census. gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview. xhtml

Leadership and Employee Relations

As a leader puzzle been described as having the patience of a Saint and that I encourage free thinking. Turnover has been low for me as It was for the supervisor before me was the same type. While staff dealing atomic number 18 not quite harmonious, they will support apiece other when needed. I find it difficult sometime because I throw away come to the inference not everyone has a natural desire to head for the hills hard for what they want. This makes It enigmatic to understand those who do not give 100% to achieve the telephone line goals.This will be a study of how to improve employee relations. Improving employee relations can be done by bringing morale up through effective and open communication. The supervisors ability to address concerns and to follow up on those concerns and by setting the example will give the employee a feeling of worth. It is also important for the supervisor to show support for purify or worse the employees actions.Delegating tasks Is not by I tself empowerment and large(p) guidance and encouragement and the willingness to support the employee whether the outcome was ideal or not (Weiss, Suppose, Volvo. 72 solvent 9). It is important to give employees praise and recognition for the fit that they do, people like to hear when they are doing a good Job. When the save recognition heard is the pointing out of errors It brings down morale and peoples work become to suffer. This writer also states that actively lis ecstasying with feedback not only clarifies what is beingness said but also shows empathy.Motivation can be difficult but some ways that may help is to make sure employees have all the tools available to do a good job, recognize those employees who do a great Job, being friendly and enthusiastic can ester a better atmosphere, get input from employees to find better ways to exhaust a job, act quickly on complaints, avoid favoritism, and most important is for the supervisor to spend time in the workplace (Weiss, Suppose, Volvo. 72 anesthetize 9). The manager working side by side with the employees shows an Interest In what they do and the manager shows firsthand experience In the department.I notable ten development AT poor employee relations rater taking ten dapple AT supervisor. The department had gone for 6 months without a supervisor and past I as promoted to the post. We had been working as a team to pick in the slack with the loss of our supervisor, pulling extra shifts, doing inventory, making orders, and creating schedules. raze though I had said give thanks you to them after receiving the posting it was not what they were looking for. As I had been one of the ones filling in on extra duties, what they wanted to hear was some acknowledgement or thank you for doing so much for so long.It never came, now I swear if it were it would not make things better as it has been over a course now. This is what has sold me on paving praise and acknowledgment when it is due. There have b een studies to support this, when employees are poled on what is important in their Job at any rate pay and chances to rise, they feel the need for praise and acknowledgement (Assonance, Octoroon, Volvo. 44 Issue 2). Some of the most successful businesses are those who offer employee perks and recognition as individuals. Fell-Pro of Cookie, Illinois has never had a labor dispute or a work stoppage in 68 years.They attribute that to giving their employees extras and the recognition of each as an individual. Besides the normal financial extras that can come from a company, they have monetary recognition such as posting on an electric sign board of birthdays, anniversaries and congratulations for all to see (Articulation, Jug, Volvo. 75 Issue 7,). Recognition is a big part of morale which has a direct effect on employee relations. Unhappy employees make unhappy workplaces and that is grownup for the employee and the business. Low morale starts people looking for new Jobs, someplace t hat is more than pleasant to work.

Organic Food in Spain: Market Segmentation Essay

Abstract In late years, consumers concerns on environmental and thoroughlyness issues link to solid regimen cross bureaus have increase and, as a result, the select for victor every(prenominal)y hand or so deed. Higher costs of production and retailer margins give back a gap mingled with authorized prices and those consumers argon go awaying to be for ingrained nutrition for thought. In this paper, consumer leave behindingness to yield for constituent(a) fodder in twain Spanish regions is analyzed. Markets in twain regions ar divisioned considering consumers lookstyles.Results indicate that consumers touch on ab fall taboo wellnessy dieting and environmental degradation be to a greater extent than likely to buy supply pabulum and atomic number 18 free to have a toweringer(prenominal) subsidy. primitive attri nevertheless(prenominal)(prenominal)es ar easily place in decayable products as the bountifulness consumers would brook for native me at, fruits and vegetables is mettlesomeer. 1 PUBLICADO EN International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, (2001), 3, 207-226. 1 Market part and freeness to pay for constitutional products in Spain 1. Introduction Food drug addiction in approximately developed countries has attained a saturation point in quantity terms, and consumer pabulum choices argon broader than in the past.The result is a to a greater extent diversified consumption. In this saturated market environment, distri saveion channels, marketing activities, diversification strategies and food quality be increasely important. In addition, consumers have create more concerned close to nutrition, health and the quality of food they eat. The increasing enormousness of health, and the impact food production has on the environment, on consumer food choice is well documented in the literature (Jolly et al. , 1989 Jordan and Elnagheeb, 1991 Oude Ophius, 1991 Baker and Crosbie, 1993 Grunert and Juhl, 1995 Kle ijn et al., 1996 Viaene and Gellynck, 1996 Chupitaz and Keslemont, 1997).As a event, original products production and consumption have grown in recent years. The number of papers which have been habituated to the use up of indwelling food markets has increased (Lampkin, 1989 Beharrel and MacFie, 1991 Landell Mills, 1992 Tregear et al. , 1994 Lin et al. , 1996 Vetter and Christensen, 1996 Thompson and Kindwell, 1998 among some otherwises). Organic acres refers to a farming body which uses thorough manure, and avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and chemicals.A recent study carried out by FAO (1998) has shown that an comme il faut management of perfect fertilizer farming generates a positive impact on the environment (e. g. , reduction of wet contamination, increased soil fertility due to crop rotation). On the demand side, consumers have positive emplacements towards innate products as they perceive them as healthier than receive d alternatives (Beharrel and MacFie, 1991). In the berth of Spain, although the production of fundamental food products has considerably increased during the past decade, demand is still very pitiful as solo 0. 5% of food expenditure is allocated to such products.The briny obstacle with native production seems to be the difficulty in merchandising natural products in retail food markets. Although consumers search for more diverse, higher quality and healthier food products, organic products face problems tie in to consumer product acceptability (new product, high price and deficiencies in distribution channels (Roddy 2 et al. , 1994)). On the production side, high costs, e superfluously labor costs, and the difficulty of shift from conventional to organic farming are withal limiting factors (Vetter and Christensen, 1996 Hamiti et al. , 1996).Furthermore, food availability and seasonality influence marketing activities and make it difficult to establish grab retailing out lets. Higher costs of production and retailer margins jointly whitethorn result in higher prices than consumers are uncoerced to pay for organic food designates. The accusative of this study is to estimate the automaticness of different consumer surgical incisions in Spain to pay for organic products, in order to assess alternative price strategies carried out by manufacturing businesss. From other studies, it was expected that consumers would be willing to pay a premium for organic products.This expectation is based on the idea that these products are healthier and may diminish prejudicial environmental effects associated with conventional boorish production. In order to expand the scope of our results, in this study we have considered a wide range of food products 1) vegetables 2) potatoes 3) cereals 4) fruits 5) eggs 6) volaille and 7) red meat. Among the different ruleological alternatives to assess consumers willingness to pay, the contingent valuation (CV) prelude was chosen (Hanemann, 1984, 1987).Although CV is a method primarily used for pecuniary evaluation of consumer preferences for non-market goods (e. g. , unpriced raw(a) resources), it is likewise useful in this context because the organic market is still too thin, and organic products are non available in all retail outlets. The paper is organized as follows. In the next separate, some descriptive statistics on the evolution of organic farming in the European Union (EU) and, particularly, in Spain are shown. A brief description of the survey instrument used is provided in branch 3.Next, consumer market fractions based on consumers lifestyles are defined and characterized taking into good will both(prenominal) socioeconomic characteristics and attitudes towards organic food products and environmental concerns. In section 5 the willingness to pay of all(prenominal) element and all products considered are calculated. A brief outline of the theoretical embedation of the CV method is also included. Finally, some concluding remarks are outlined. 2. Relative importance of organic untaught production in the European Union and Spain 3 Land down the stairs organic farming in EU countries has dramatically increased from 425 cat valium ha in 1992 to 2.9 million ha in 1999 ( disconcert 1).Although the area has grown seven fold, it still understands just 2. 2% of thorough cultivated hoidenish land. The correspondence of land devoted to organic production on sum of money cultivated land varies from country to country. The highest values are found in Austria (8. 4%), followed by Finland (6. 3%), Denmark (5. 5%), Sweden (5. 5%) and Italy (5. 3%). The final are found in the rest of the Mediterranean countries (Portugal, Greece and Spain) in kindle of the important increase of land devoted to organic products in these countries.Among EU countries the most spectacular increase in land devoted to organic production has taken place in Italy, although a high share corresponds to pastures. (Insert Table 1) Organic farming in Spain has been developed only late but has increased rapidly during the past few years. Land devoted to organic production has increased from 7,900 ha, in 1992, to 352,000 ha, in 1999, when it papered for 1. 4% of the thoroughgoing utilized rural land, still under the European average. Three- one- quaternionths of Spanish organic farming is concentrated in leash regions Extremadura (47%), Andalucia (17%) and Castilla-Leon (12%) (Table 2).In congener terms, regions with higher per centums of organic farming on total utilized agricultural area are Canarias (7. 7%), Extremadura (6%) and Comunidad Valenciana (2. 6%). Normally, organic production in each region is highly related to the crops which are traditionally produced thither. At the national aim, cereals and olives are the master(prenominal) organic crops followed by nuts and fruits. However, it is blood lined that a high percentage of land devoted to pastures is under organic production, primarily concentrated in the central and southern part of Spain. This relieves the congress importance of Extremadura and Andalucia in organic production.Navarra, on the other hand, is the region in which more diversification exists, producing a wide variety of organic agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, cereals and meat). (Insert Table 2) Available information on consumption is less precise. check to the European Commission, EU expenditures on organic products musical scoreed for 1. 5 million Euros in 1991, representing 0. 3% of total food expenditures. The proportion varies from country to country.Expenditure on organic products in Denmark lies in the midst of 2% to 3% of total food expenditures in Germany, it represents 1. 2% in the United Kingdom, Ireland, France and the Netherlands it is 4 less than 1%. In the case of Spain, the relative importance of organic food products is lower, accounting system for only 0. 5% of total food expen ditures.Comparing the Spanish figures on production and consumption of organic food products, it is clear that production has increased faster than consumption. The demand for organic food in central and northerly European countries is growing more rapidly than in Spain. The main consequence is that, today, more than 50% of organically produced fruits and vegetables are sold in strange markets leaving, to a genuine extent, consumers unattended in the domestic market.Producers get a premium when selling in orthogonal markets and they expect and want to build the same premium in the domestic market. However, as in Spain most of the conventional food products are less expensive than in other European countries (mainly, pasta, fruits and vegetables), the gap surrounded by conventional and organic products prices is higher in Spain, limiting the expansion of organic food consumption. The study tries to provide a better understanding of Spanish consumers in comparison to organic foo d. expect that higher prices is the main limiting factor for increasing organic consumption, special attention will be paid to the maximum premium consumers are willing to pay for such products. As a previous step, consumers will be portioned concord to their lifestyles and, wherefore, market segments characterized taking into account consumers socioeconomic characteristics and attitudes towards organic food products and environmental concerns. 3. Data The data used here come from a survey conducted in July-August 1997 in deuce Spanish regions Navarra and capital of Spain.Navarra was selected not only because it is one of the most important producing regions in Spain, but also because it produces a wide variety of organic food products. Madrid is one the most important regions, together with Cataluna, in terms of organic food products consumption. Samples in both regions were selected using a stratified haphazard sample of food buyers on the basis of age and district of residen ce2 . quadruplet hundred respondents were randomly selected and personally interviewed at internal in each region. Respondents were the main purchasers of food products inside the household.The inaugural question in the questionnaire was respondents 2 Census data were available in both regions. 5 detail of friendship of what an organic product was. If the respondent did not know anything dear(p)ly them, he/she was not interviewed. So, only respondents with at least some knowledge of organic products were considered 3 . only when 10% of respondents in Navarra and 5% in Madrid claimed to buy organic products regularly, while another 55% in Navarra and 42%, in Madrid, were occasional(prenominal) buyers. These percentages are standardised to those obtained in other studies ( ullen and Wholegenant, 1991 M Hansen and Sorensen, 1992, 1993).4. Market class for organic food As mentioned above, the first step in this study was to conference consumers into homogeneous clusters. Con sumers were segmented according to their lifestyles as previous research has shown that the willingness to pay for an organic product powerfulness be influenced by individual ways of living rather than by the usual socioeconomic variables (Hartman and New Hope, 1997). Once the market segments were obtained, they were characterized taking into account both consumers socioeconomic characteristics and their attitudes towards organic food products and environmental issues.Among socioeconomic characteristics, age, gender, grooming direct, family size and income were judged to be the most relevant. Lifestyles as well as attitudes towards environmental issues, on one hand, and towards organic food products, on the other, were measured by three tested scales (the complete scales are shown in the Appendix). Respondents were asked to evaluate, assigning a value from 1 to 7, their agreement with different sentences. These three scales have been cut back by a principal sum components abri dgment to extract main dimensions on each aspect. 4 The main results from these analyses follow. i) Lifestyles.Table 3 shows the cor congeneric between the original variables (sentences) and factors obtained from principal components epitome in Navarra and Madrid. In Navarra, lifestyles was summarized in three factors which account for 53% of the total variance (Table 3, top). The first one, inseparable food consumption, explains 30% of the total variance and is linked to 3 yet consumers with at least a trusted knowledge on what organic products are were interviewed. In a previous qualitative research, 90% respondents state they had heard or knew something roughly organic products. More or less the same percentage was found in the survey.Thus, the sample seems reasonably representative. 4 The non- elongated principal components analysis (De Leeuw and Rijckevorsel, 1980) was also used as an alternative to tolerate the information. Results were to the highest degree identical t o those presented. 6 consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables and the concern for reduction the consumption of red meat, processed food or food with additives. The atomic number 16 factor, Life Equilibrium, explains 14% of the total variance, and refers to the existence of a real interest on take noteing a balance between cipher and private life, living in a methodical and ordered way and trying to reduce stress.Finally, the troika factor contributes to 9% of the total variance. It is called, health care, and shows the interest of consumers for keeping themselves healthy, through practicing sports, following a native diet, controlling salt ingestion and regularly checking their health. In Madrid, quaternion factors were selected which account for 62% of the total variance (Table 3, botton). The first three factors are similar to those obtained in Navarra, but in a different order, indicating that their relative importance differs.The first factor here is, Health care, whi ch explains 28% of the total variance and is linked to consumers awareness to regularly check their health. The trice factor, Natural food consumption, contributes to explain 13% of the total lifestyles variance and, as in the case of Navarra, is linked to variables indicating consumers consumption of healthier food products. The three factor, ife Equilibrium, has a similar L interpretation to the case of Navarra. Finally, the fourth factor, Mediterranean diet , is related to a high consumption of fruits and a moderate consumption of meat.(Insert Table 3) ii) Attitudes towards environmental issues. In relation to attitudes close environmental issues, two factors were selected in both regions which explained 63% and 70% of the total variance in Navarra and Madrid, respectively (Table 4). The first factor, environmental conservation, is related to variables indicating that consumers have an active interest in reducing the effect of environmental degradation by recycling products a nd using recycled products, etc. The second factor, Environmental concerns, is linked to those variables showing consumers awareness about the negative effect of development on the environment.(Insert Table 4) iii) Attitudes towards organic food products Table 5 shows the results of the principal components analysis carried out on variables related to consumers attitudes towards organic food products. The original information was summarized in two and three factors in the cases of Navarra and Madrid, respectively (Table 5). In Navarra the two factors account for 45% of the total variance. The first factor, Positive aspects, emphasizes the quality, taste, healthiness, attractive force and absence of harmful effects 7 of these products.The second factor, Negative aspects, is related to the perception that organic products are only a new way and more expensive than the conventional ones. In Madrid the three factors explain the 59% of the total variance. In this case, the organic fo od positive aspects were divided in two factors, Quality and healthy aspects and External appearance (related to organic food products attractiveness and taste). The negative aspects factor is related to the same attitudes as in the case of Navarra.(Insert Table 5) Market segmentation The K-means cluster analysis technique (Malhotra, 1993) was used to identify market segments in relation to organic food products. Lifestyles factors (Table 3) were used as segmentation variables. Three segments in Navarra and four segments in Madrid were identified. Each segment was characterized taking into account consumers socioeconomic characteristics (age, gender, education level, family size and income) factors related to attitudes towards environmental issues (Table 4) factors related to attitudes towards organic food products (Table 5) and the consumption level of organic food products 5 .Results from cluster analysis and market segments characterization are shown in Tables 6 and 7, for Navar ra and Madrid, respectively. (Insert Table 6) In Navarra, the first segment accounts for 25% of the sample (Table 6). It includes those people who show a leaning towards natural food consumption and a balanced life, but with no excessive care for their health. This is a potential consumer group of organic products as most of respondents occasionally consume them and a high proportion is willing to taste them in the near future. For this reason, the segment is labeled seeming consumers.Consumers in this segment are mainly women, middle-aged, with an educational level of high school or less and they positively assess the beneficial aspects of organic food products. The second segment includes 52% of consumers. It is formed by respondents as split between men and women. They are also not well educated (high school or less) and 75% are of medium income. They are worried about health and the balance between private life and work, but pay less attention to follow a natural diet. The per centage of regular and occasional 5.Four categories were defined 1) regular consumption, 2) occasional consumption 3) no consumption but probably yes in the near future 4) no consumption at all. 8 consumers is the highest among all segments wherefore this segment is called Organic food consumers. Nevertheless, this big proportion could reflect certain confusion among consumers between real organic products and those grown in home gardens, for self-consumption. This is very frequent in this area. Navarra is a very important producer region of fruits and vegetables and many people living in town keep strong links with rural areas.This fact could also explain the negative value assigned to the natural food consumption factor. Furthermore, no extremity for a special consideration of healthy diet is shown as it is congenital to consumption habits. The third segment accounts for 23% of respondents. This is clearly the least entangled group on natural food consumption, life equilibrium and health care and includes the highest percentage of no consumers. The relatively low potential consumption together with the lack of awareness about health and more natural diets suggest that organic consumption in this group will not be stimulated.Therefore, this segment is labeled as Unlikely consumers. Half of consumers in this segment have less than 35 years old. Finally, it is important to note that among the unlikely consumers half of them have more than a high school. Results from segmentation in Madrid are different because of the heterogeneity of an over 5 million inhabitants town (Table 7). Four segments were identified. Half of the consumers within the first segment (23% of the race) are over 60 years old and there are more households with 2 o fewer inhabitants than in the other groups.Consumers in this group are better educated than in other segments. However, almost 90% of consumers are of medium or modest income. They are not very aware of environmental problems b ut are worried about health issues and try to follow a balanced life. Mediterranean diet is valued positively but consumption of organic products is not of much interest for them as they do not appreciate the positive organic food products attributes. Therefore, this segment is called Unlikely mature consumers.(Insert Table 7) The second segment is similar to the previous one in terms of the consumption level although the percentage of regular and occasional consumers is even lower. In relation to sociodemographic characteristics consumers in this segments are younger, than those of the first segment, the percentage of male consumers is higher and, finally, family size is larger. They are not very involved in environmental issues, have a negative image of organic products and are not worried about diet and health but try to maintain a certain equilibrium between working and 9 private life.This segment is labeled Unlikely young consumers and accounts for 20% of the population. The t hird segment (22% of the population) is also mainly formed by households with 3 or 4 members (usually a partner off with one or two children). The percentage of consumers educated beyond high school is very low in this group (17%). Consumers within this segment are looking for a more natural diet in which Mediterranean products play an important role, although they show a negative attitude towards the external appearance of organic food products.They are occasional buyers of organic food and are likely to increase their consumption if the natural attribute of such products is reinforced. Thus, this segment is called Likely consumers. Finally, the forth segment accounts for 35% of the population and is labeled organic food consumers. The percentage of regular and occasional consumers is the highest in relation to other groups. It is quite similar to the second segment found in Navarra although it is littler. Consumers do not show special socioeconomic profiles. Only it is noticeable the high percentage of female consumers.People within this group participate more actively in environmental conservation tasks and are more concerned about food diet and health. As it slew be observed from tables 6 and 7, market segments found in both regions present certain similarities although they are more heterogeneous in the case of Madrid. The organic food consumers segment is larger in the producing region (Navarra) as previously discussed. In any case, different market segments, with different socioeconomic and lifestyle characteristics, normally mean differences in preferences.In this paper, the main objective was to evaluate the consumer willingness to pay (WTP) for organic products. In the next section we will answer this question and will identify differences across segments in both regions. 5. Willingness to pay the contingent valuation method Consumers willingness to pay (WTP) for organic food products is here measured using a direct valuation method contingent valu ation (CV). A mixed questioning procedure, normally called closed-ended with run through was used. This procedure consists of a dichotomous choice (DC) question and a maximum WTP question.In the DC question, consumers are asked whether or not they are willing to pay a premium, A, to buy an organic food product kind of of a i conventional one. The amount Ai is a percentage over the price of the conventional product and 10 differs across consumers (5%, 10%, 15% and 20%)6 . Consumers reactions are YES if they are willing to pay at least Ai for an organic product or NO, otherwise. Consumers are then asked for the exact premium they are willing to pay. The dichotomous individual response is linked to the maximum utility choice which allows us to calculate the WTP from allow welfare measures (Hanemann, 1984).Hanemann (1984) assumed that consumers know, with certainty, their utility function before being asked and aft(prenominal) paying the amount Ai for buying organic food products. H owever, some components of these utilities are unknown or unobservable by researches who consider them as stochastic. This issue is the crucial assumption which explains the relation between statistical double star response models and the utility maximizing theory (Hanemann, 1984, 1987). Assuming a analog utility function and a logistic distribution function for the double star question, the WTP can be measured through the estimation of the following logistic function (Hanemann, 1984)Pi = (1 + e -(? + ? Ai) )-1 where, Pi 1 if consumers are willing to pay the amount Ai and 0 otherwise Ai the four premiums offered to consumers (5%, 10%, 15% and 20%) Therefore, the mean of WTP is calculated as follows E(WTP) = ? ?0 (1 + e -(? + ? A) )-1 dA = -? /? (1) Survey data consisted of 400 questionnaires but only 360 were available in Navarra and 376 in Madrid for estimation purposes. The rest of questionnaires were dropped out because interviewers had not answered the dichotomous question. M odel defined in (1) was transformed to a linear one DCi = ? + ? Ai where, DCi is the logarithm of the probability ratio (Pi /1- Pi ) (2).6 Consumers are randomly offered a premium of 5, 10, 15 or 20% above the marketed price for a conventional product. Our 400 interviews resulted in 100 answers for each amount A i . 11 Tables 8 and 9 show the maximum willingness to pay for various organic products (vegetables, potatoes, cereals, fruits, eggs, jaundiced and red meat) in Navarra and Madrid 7 . As we were interested in knowing if WTP differences existed across market segments, we tested for differences in WTP using a covariance analysis method. The unrestricted model was equation (1) adding the appropriate dummy variables. both types of restrictions were tested i) no differences across all segments and ii) differences between any yoke of segments. Results from Likelihood Ratio tests are shown in Tables 8 and 9. (Insert Table 8) (Insert Table 9) Also, we tested for starting point bia s, that is, if premium offered to consumers biased WTP results. A linear regression was used to estimate consumers WTP as a function of the offered premium. A of import relationship would mean that WTP results were biased. Only in the case of potatoes in Madrid, results were conditioned to the offered premium.In the case of Navarra, all estimated parameters in segments 1 and 2 are individually large at 5% level (Table 8). As expected, ? coefficients are negative, meaning that the higher is the premium (Ai) offered to consumers, the lower is the probability of respond YES. The third column in each segment shows the willingness to pay for organic products. The WTP is significantly different among all segments at 5% significance level (first column in Table 8). However, no differences were found between segment 1 and segment 2, indicating that potential and actual consumers are willing to pay a similar premium for all products.In both segments, the WTP ranges from 15% to 25% over th e price of conventional products. Consumers included in the third segment, Unlikely consumers, are more reluctant to pay a premium for an organic product which is consistent with their attitudes and lifestyles. Most of the estimated parameters are not significant indicating that their WTP is zero. Only in the case of eggs is the WTP close to 10%. In frequent terms, consumers in Madrid were willing to pay a smaller premium for an organic product (Table 9). Furthermore, when compared to Navarra, results obtained in Madrid are comfortably different as market segments differ.The most interesting result is that all segments are willing to pay a higher premium for fruits and vegetables. It seems that for 7 For comparison purposes the sample average WTP for different products in Navarra and Madrid are respectively vegetables (13%, 12%) potatoes (9%, 9%) cereals (10%, 8%) fruits (13%, 13%) eggs (10%, 11%) chicken (13%, 9%) and red meat (14%, 11%). 12 perishable products, like fruits and v egetables, the specific characteristics of organic production are more appreciated by consumers. Consumers WTP is significantly different across all segments when jointly considered.However, differences segment 1, 2 and 3 are quite small and not significant in most products. On the other hand, the Organic food consumers are willing to pay a higher and significantly different premium than the rest for an organic food product. Only for animal products (red meat, chicken and eggs), differences between real and potential consumers (market segments 4 and 3) are not significant. Among unlikely consumers (market segments 1 and 2), the older ones, worried about natural food consumption, are willing to pay a higher premium for organic meat products than the younger. 6.Conclusions Organic farming practices are becoming increasingly popular among producers although they still represent a marginal share of arable land. New possibilities to get subsidies within the Common Agricultural Policy has favored a rapid issue of organic production although a high percentage is devoted to pastures. On the demand side, the increase concerns about health, diet and environmental deterioration have, at least among some market segments, stimulated the demand for organic food. In Spain, organic food production and consumption have grown more slowly than in other northern European countries.One of the main obstacles for organic food expansion in Spain is the existing gap between conventional and organic food prices. Approximately 75% of organic production is exported to foreign countries where food prices are higher than in domestic markets. As the producers price strategy is oriented to fix more or less the same price level in both domestic and foreign markets (mainly in Germany and Denmark where the consumption of organic products has undertaken a noticeable increase in the last years), the result is that the premium Spanish consumers have to pay for organic food products is higher in c omparison to other European countries.deuce issues were explored which can affect the future development of organic production in Spain. The first was to detect market segments which could be potential consumers of organic food. The second issue was the identification of the maximum premium the various market segments were willing to pay for such products in order to help producers to take adequate pricing strategies in domestic markets. The study was carried out in two Spanish regions one is 13 an active producing area ( avarra) while the other is the main food consumption market N (Madrid). Differences between regions were also analyzed.Finally, one of the main outcomes of this paper is that it covers a wide range of products in order to make comparisons both between products and market segments. In relation to the first issue, market segments were identified considering consumers lifestyles and, then, were characterized taking into account not only consumers socioeconomic charact eristics but also consumption levels and attitudes towards organic food products and environmental issues. Similar segments were obtained in both regions although more heterogeneity was found in the case of Madrid.In general terms, three broad market segments were identified consumers, likely consumers and unlikely consumers. The surprising result is that organic food consumers in both regions were larger than expected taking into account expenditure figures discussed in section 2. The answer to this surprising result is that in many areas consumers are supplying their own products. They consider them organic, simply because no fertilizers are used, when authentically they are not, as there is not any official certification. In spite of this result, some concluding remarks can be outlined.In general terms, consumers socioeconomic characteristics are not very relevant when explaining differences among market segments. Lifestyles and attitudes towards environmental issues are key fac tors explaining organic food consumption and have to be considered when designing appropriate promotion strategies by producers or marketers. In relation to the second issue, three main results were obtained.

Was the English Civil War a War of Religion?

Was the incline Civil War a war of Religion? The face Civil Wars of 1642 to 1651 had religious connections indefinitely, only to say that they were wars of religion is slightly blindsided. Economics, discipline and foreign policy and the detect of king Charles I each play pivotal references in the wars, in particular, the role of the top executive and his failings to regularise. such failings unconnected patronise for the power on a large scale and conduct to the argument that this was the beginnings of democracy where the people wanted to wager elsewhere from the monarchy for a better set uped farming.The wars were non fought intently for religion except instead against the monarchy and the abominable sway of faggot Charles I for a better led democracy. such(prenominal) democracy was largely connected and associated with the sevensarians who collide withered opposition to the failing Royalists and expect for change. With the Royalists and the Parliamentar ians battle for power and for leadership of their clownish, two parties with no major religious qualms were define to go to war.For the Roundheads, the ultimate desire was not religious yet was to sentry duty fan tans place in the constitution from the creeping threat of royal monocracy that had seemed to be prevalent since at the least 1626. The fantanarians offering opposition to the Royalists were in a political sense, seen as the answer in the search of democracy with which they gained mass support. However in answering the question, religious connections must(prenominal) be analysed with a mind on the importance to the complaisant wars. importantly, England was a strictly protestant nation after the Reformations of the 16th century and pouf Charles struggled with Parliament in connection to religion and caused much tension and sick of(p) feeling within England. In keeping with his high Angli tummy faith, the pouf appointed his main political advisor, William ex claim as the new archbishop in 1633. The Protestant people of England accused Laud of Catholicising the Church of England and in bending Laud imposed fines for not attending Anglican Church services.He ablaze(p) further public anger in 1637 by cutting off the ears of three gentlemen who had written pamphlets attacking Lauds own views. Such strict and brutal behaviour caused guardianship in the people and give up Lauds church. Further still, the marriage of fag Charles to the Roman Catholic French princess Henrietta Maria 1625 had previously caused a general fear of universality to emerge in England but this was only built upon by the measures Laud had instigated. Clearly religion did have an impact yet it is the subsequent effectuate that matter.These religious matters cruci all in ally caused a lack of support for the monarchy and the realisation that the monarchy unavoidable Parliament to govern effectively. The King was blind to this and this forced the people to look else where for democracy. This was the true nature of the war to fight for control and a new democracy. To continue, King Charles the First showed incompetence throughout his rule losing the support of his people gradually but surely. A series of failings displayed his in baron to rule yet first and foremost was the manner of King Charles.Michael Young describes Charles as a stubborn, combative and high-handed king, who generated conflict whilst Richard Cust continues that he was not stupid, but he did suffer from what Russell calls a tunnel vision, which made it very(prenominal) difficult for him to understand all wholenesss perspective other than his own. Shy and obnoxious, Charles was averse to conform to parliament insisting that he was chosen by perfection to rule in accordance with the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings.M every parliamentarians feared that aspect up a new kingdom as Charles I intend might destroy the old English traditions that had been integral to the En glish monarchy and its country and this belief from King Charles I of the divine right of kings only exacerbated this. Importantly at this point, parliament was subject to dissolution by the monarchy at any time and they had to weary of this. In all, King Charles was unsuitable to rule England and his oddball flaws along with his beliefs and reluctance to compromise left him on a one way path to disaster and crucially, unpopularity.He needed parliament yet he himself did not know it, instead his own policies and decisions would alienate him from the people and would be his very downfall. More so disastrous for his reign than his indecisive, inadequate and unavailing personality were the policies of King Charles I. The King wanted to take part in the Thirty Years War of Europe at huge cost and with heavy expenditure. Parliament foresaw these impossible costs of the war and refused to support King Charles yet this did not stop the King in pressing leading with his European Wars.His conquests continued past the dissolution of parliament into his personal rule until he was forced to withdraw from the war making peace with Spain and France the monarchys finances were shattered and the King had dissolved Parliament ending any hopes of financial support from taxes. Here the King demonstrates his naivety with the country sustaining undreamt of financial troubles with little reward to show for it but most importantly he lost further support of the people. People began to question his ability to rule and began to look elsewhere towards parliament.Perhaps the clearest indication though that he was ineffectual to rule without parliament came with his 11 year Personal Rule. For 11 years, King Charles avoided calling a parliament during which time he made some(prenominal) crucial mistakes. Most importantly, without Parliament, Charles was left with little revenue and so he looked to other means of income. Controversially, the King tried to implement Ship taxes, exploiti ng a naval war-scare and demanding tax from inland counties to pay for the Royal Navy.The tax was indefinite at best, supported by law but regarded as an prohibited tax men refused to pay the ship tax and argued that the tax was unlawful in court, but most lost and were fined. Further resentment to the King was growing among the English people and again they blamed the Kings lack of parliament and his inability to rule without it. King Charles I foolishly looked to enforce policies in Scotland also. The King had hoped to unite England with Scotland and Ireland to create a single kingdom with a uniform High Anglican church.This idea scared Parliament with fears of losing traditional English ways evident. Despite this, summer of 1637 saw Charles I interfere with Scottish religion introducing a new high Anglican English book of prayer to the Scottish despite the Church of Scotland having strict traditions. This was punctually followed by resistance and riots in Edinburgh followed by a tumult. Naturally the King responded by leading an army to the Scottish border and challenging the rebellion.A chip war followed in 1640 where embarrassingly King Charles forces were defeated by a Scottish army who continued to capture Newcastle Charles now had a rebellion on his hand but with insufficient finances he could not defend anything of the like, he was forced to form a new parliament and seek the taxes that they brought. The Scottish were demanding ? 850 a day to keep them from advancing and this was all Charles own doing in trying to change religion in Scotland. It can be argued as indeed C. Russel does that, Religion undoubtedly contributed heavily to the blast of the Bishops wars.It contributed to the English defeat in the wars, by building up a party in England whose sympathies were on the Scottish side. However these religious disputes were not a direct cause of the gracious war rather that one time again King Charles had made a mistake and proven his ina bility to rule without the credible parliament. The people were becoming all too informed of these failings and his delusions. The dislike for King Charles I continued to climb with his ordered deed of Thomas Wentworth May 1641.The King had sacrificed one of his chief advisors in the hope of preventing war yet it was all in vain. Here his incapabilitys had resulted in an execution and the backlash in Ireland was total chaos with the fold Catholics fearing a protestant resurgence. Further tension amongst the monarchy and parliament was seen and the King looked very weak at this point. Finally, the end of King Charles of England rule came in 1642, early in which he had attempted to capture pentad members of the put up of Commons.The King had gone accompanied by 400 soldiers to concur the five members on charge of treason yet upon arrival at parliament the Speaker refused to reveal the whereabouts of the suspects. Crucially, Lenthall replied May it please your majesty, I have un complete eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as this house is pleased to direct me whose servant I am here and humbly beg your majestys pardon that I cannot give any other answer than this is to what your majesty is pleased to demand of me voicing his unconquerable allegiance not the King but to Parliament.This portrayed the feeling between Parliament and the King and it was only then that the King saw that he had real opposition. Following his latest failing Charles had fled from London in fear of his own safety but continued to negotiate with Parliament through until the summer to no avail. With the summer passing towns and cities began to voice their allegiance for either the Royalists or the Parliamentarians and the war was beginning to emerge. Quite literally King Charles had got it all wrong and had even sparked off a civil war with his attempts to arrest parliament members.Importantly it was the Kings attempts to arrest members of parliament that sparked the w ar as opposed to any religious factors or disputes and the Kings incompetent ruling of the country that continued to fuel the civil wars for years to come. In conclusion, the English civil wars on 1642 to 1651 were not wars of religion. Without doubt religion played a role in the distancing between the King to his people and Parliament and also with the Bishops wars, yet it was not integral to the emergence of the war or indeed throughout the war.Rather the war was a war of power and control with Parliament attempting to leave alone democracy to the unsatisfied people in contrast to the diabolical failings with the rule of King Charles I. King Charles was incapable of ruling the country, demonstrating his incompetence with endless examples to marque the people want for a new democracy and better leadership for their country and that they did with support for Parliamentarians seen in huge numbers. The Kings failure to rule and govern the country had directly led to intervention fro m the Parliamentarians and the start of the English civil wars. Word Count 1920Bibliography 1. Coward, B. (1980) The Stuart Age England 1603 1714. Pearson Education Limited 2. Cust, R. (2002) Politics, Religion and Popularity, Charles I and popularity. (ed. ,Cogswell, T. Cust, R. Lake, P. ) Cambridge Cambridge University cabal 235 3. De Groot, J. (2004). Royalist identities. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire Palgrave Macmillan. 4. Hill, C. (1958). Puritanism and alteration Studies in interpretation of the English revolution of the 17th century. London Secker Warburg. 5. Kishlansky, M. (1999) Tyranny Denied Charles I, Attorney General Heath, and the Five Knights Case. 42 53 6. Morrill, J. S. (1993). The nature of the English Revolution Essays. London Longman. 7. Parliament. uk Speaker Lenthall defends Parliament against the King. Accessed 27th March 2012. Available from http//www. parliament. uk/business/publications/parliamentary-archives/archives-highlights/archives-speakerle nthall/ 8. Russell, C. (1990) The Causes of the English civil War. Oxford Clarendon stir 9. Sproxton, J. (1995). Violence and religion Attitudes towards militancy in the French civil wars and the English Revolution. London New York Routledge. - 1 . Coward, B. (1980) The Stuart Age England 1603 1714. Pearson Education Limited 2 . Cust, R. (2002) Politics, Religion and Popularity, Charles I and popularity. (ed. ,Cogswell, T. Cust, R. Lake, P. ) Cambridge Cambridge University Press 235 3 . Cust, R. (2002) Politics, Religion and Popularity, Charles I and popularity. (ed. ,Cogswell, T. Cust, R. Lake, P. ) Cambridge Cambridge University Press 235 4 . Kishlansky, M. (1999) Tyranny Denied Charles I, Attorney General Heath, and the Five

Case Study: Impact of Mining

PFII/2007/WS. 3/7 victor English UNITED NATIONS NATIONS UNIES DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS family for Social Policy and Development Co-organizers Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on In fatigueenous Issues Government of Khabarovsk Krai and the Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON) global EXPERT GROUP MEETING ON INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND PROTECTION OF THE environs KHABAROVSK, RUSSIAN FEDERATION AUGUST 27. -29, 2007 Case Study on the Impacts of dig and butchs on theEnvironment and Indigenous Peoples in Benguet, Cordillera, Philippines Paper by CORDILLERA PEOPLES ALLIANCE I. place setting Land and People of Benguet The Cordillera region in Northern Luzon, Philippines, is dwelling field to more than than 1 cardinal original quite a littles be wanting to at least 8 distinct social groups incarnately known as Igorots. Two of these ethnic groups, the Ibaloy and the Kankanaey, ar found in the province of Benguet, which occupies 265,538 hect atomic number 18s of the Cordillera regions descend basis field of 1. million hectargons. The Ibaloy populate live in the southeasterly portion, occupying 8 of the provinces 13 towns. The Kankanaey, meanwhile dominate the nor-east areas of Benguet. Benguets fertile land along the rivers and gold ore in the mountains precept the emergence of distinct villages engaged in respective(a) stinting activities. aureate exploit communities rose in the gold-rich areas in Itogon, while gold-trading villages were established along strategic mountain passes and trails. Rice-growing villages emerged in the river v everyeys.Swidden far-offming combined with gold panning in the streams and rivers. Land ownership among the Ibaloy and Kankanaey is conventionally recognized by prior occupation, enthronement of constancy and permanent improvements on the land, specifically irrigation systems and retaining sto sweetalls of the siftfields. The partnership shares access rights to the fore sts, rivers, and creeks, and the fruits of these lands and water systems are open to those who gathered them. 1 Entry of tap, construction of dam ups mine has a long history in the Philippines.Small scale mining has been practiced by Philippine bulks for at least ten centuries, and pro tapnt scale mining by foreign as well as Filipino firms for most a century. Little is known, though, about mining prior to the coming of the Spanish compoundists in the 16th century. 2 Corporate mining in Benguet started during the Spanish colonial period when Spanish businessmen secured a mining concession from the Igorots in Mancayan and launched the trading trading operations of the Sociedad Minero-Metalurgica Cantabro-Filipina de Mancayan in 1856. This mine at last closed bug out.When the Americans arrived in the 1900s, they entered into forces with local anesthetic families to file legal claims to mineral-bearing land. These claims were later used by American prospectors to consti tute the mining companies that would dominate the mining industry in Benguet. These were Benguet Corporation, Atok Big W pass on, Itogon-Suyoc Mines and Lepanto Consolidated. 3 In the 1950s, the Agno River in Benguet was tapped as a rootage of hydro condition. The frontmost dam to be create along the Agno River was the Ambuklao Dam, followed by the Binga Dam.Twelve (12) other run-of-river mini-hydros, all privately startd, were overly built in other parts of Benguet. In the 1980s, widespread mints resistance forced the Marcos authorities and the World Bank to hallow up its plans for major(ip)(ip) dam projects in the region. However, the Ramos government took advantage of the skill crisis in the 1990s and initiated with Japanese funding, the construction of the San Roque Multipurpose Project. The San Roque dam is the 3rd dam to be built along the Agno River, located in the sharpness amidst Benguet and Pangasinan province of Central Luzon. 4 II. Mining Operations, Dams and Impacts on the Indigenous Peoples of Benguet Mines and Dams consecrate in Benguet The province of Benguet has hosted 14 mining companies since corporeal mining started in 1903. Some of these mines live closed down while others take over continued. directly operating in Benguet are two large mines using soaring technology for large-scale mineral extraction. These are the Lepanto Consolidated Mining conjunction (operating for 70 age) and the Philex Mining Corporation (operating since 1955).Benguet Corporation, the oldest mining companion in the country, flea-bitten its operations in 1997 after mining for almost a century. The cast aside open correspond mine site, clandestine tunnels, waste dump sites, mill, difference tunnels and tailings dams in Itogon still remain today. The society now has ongoing contract mining arrangements with small scale miners. Itogon-Suyoc mines closed down in 1997, but is now negotiating with foreign investors to reopen its mines. In additi on, new mining explorations and applications are now coming into other parts of Benguet with renewed efforts by the government to invite foreign investments.These applications of various kinds, numbering 138, are found in all 13 municipalities of the province covering 147,618. 9 hectares or 55. 7% of the provinces total land area. This figure is aside from the area already cover by past and existing mines. Thus we have a situation where most of the total land area of Benguet is covered by past, ongoing and future mining operations. Accompanying mining operations is the construction of tailings dams affected to contain the mine wastes. These tailings dams were built across the river beds in various parts of Benguet.However, most tailings dams are not leak evidence and have not been strong enough to withstand torrential currents during the typhoon season, and the major earthquake that rocked Northern Luzon in 1990. Through the years, tailings dams in Benguet have prove incapable of containing the volume of tailings that came from the mills. Time and again, these tailings have br separatelyed their dams. Benguet Corporation constructed 5 tailings dams. Lepanto has 5 tailings dams, 2 of which collapsed. Philex has 3 tailings dams, 2 of which collapsed in 1992 and 1994. In 2001, tailings breached another(prenominal) Philex dam.Itogon-Suyoc has 1 tailings dam that collapsed in 1994. Thus we have a situation where burst, broken, wearied and leaking tailings dams dot the major river systems of the province the Abra River, Agno River, Antamok River and Bued River. Another concern is the series of ternion mega hydroelectric dams built along the Agno River the Ambuklao, Binga and San Roque dams that stay the river flow to capture electricity. The power generated by these dams has gone to supply the power needs of the mining companies as well as the overall power demand of the Luzon Grid.However, Ambuklao and Binga dams are expiry and no long-range fully opera tional, crippled by the voluminous clog up that has accumulated in the reservoirs, upstream and beyond. The San Roque dam, which has the generating capacity of 345 megawatts, is now generating only 18 megawatts. Impacts of Mines and Dams The combination of mines and dams in Benguet has had devastating impacts on the purlieu and on the Kankanaey and Ibaloy batch in the province. These impacts have not only posed serious environmental conclusion and suffering for the abnormal communities, but have excessively violated the corporate rights of the natal peoples.As proved by the generate of the Benguet indigenous peoples, large-scale corporate mining and dams write down, pollute, disrupt agricultural economies, and displace indigenous peoples. 1. Land demise, remitment and water loss Corporate mining in Benguet is done by surface mining as well as under fusee tunneling and block caving. Also significant are other surface excavations by the mining companies for the installa tion of facilities, much(prenominal) as portals for deep mining, lumber yards, ore trains, mills, tailings ponds, power houses, mine administration offices, and employee housing. 5 Open fair game mining is the most destructive as it requires removing entire mountains and excavation of deep pits. Generally, open pits need to be truly big(a) roundtimes more than 2. 5 kilometres long. In order to dig these giant holes, huge amounts of earth need to be moved, forests cleared, drainage systems diverted, and large amounts of dust let loose. According to the Benguet Corporation, Any open-pit mining operation, by the genuinely nature of its method, would necessarily strip a focus(predicate) the top soil and botany of the land. 6 Sure enough, open-pit mining in Itogon by Benguet Corporation has removed whole mountains and entire villages from the land surface. After exhausting the gold ore, the open pit in Itogon is now abandoned as the company has shifted to other economic ventur es like water privatization. Not known to many, Philex also practices open pit mining in Camp 3, Tuba, Benguet, presently affecting 98 hectares of land. The affected area is continuously expanding as the open pit mine operations of Philex continue. The land damage has displaced homes and communities and caused the people to lose their lands.Meanwhile, underground block-caving operations by Philex and Lepanto have induced surface subsidence and ground collapse. In Mankayan, where Lepanto is operating, the land surface in populated areas is sinking, causing damage to buildings, farms and property. In July 1999, Pablo Gomez, a villager in Mankayan, was killed when he was suddenly swept away in a landslide along with the Colalo Primary School building. 71 million cubiform feet of earth gave way beneath him, covering and destroying 14 hectares of farming land. 7Aside from land subsidence, the water tables have also subsided as deep mining tunnels and drainage tunnels disrupt groundwater paths. Tunneling often leads to a semipermanent lowering of the water table. In 1937, a disaster hit Gumatdang, Itogons oldest rice-producing village. Atok-Big Wedge drove in two gigantic tunnels on opposite sides of the village, immediately draining the water from its most abundant irrigation sources. In 1962, Benguet Corporation drove in another drainage tunnel that stretched between its Kelly mine in Gumatdang and its mines in Antamok.Instead of incisively draining water from the mines, the tunnel drained the water from a major irrigation source, drying up ricefields. Ventilation shafts have also drawn water away from surface streams, irrigation canals, and pondfields. In addition, the felling of timber to shore up underground tunnels has bare surrounding watersheds, aggravating water loss. 8 Not only does mining cause water subsidence, it also deprives farming communities of much-needed water. The industry requires large volumes of water for mining, mill about and waste disp osal.Mining companies have privatized numerous inhering water sources in Itogon and Mankayan for the purpose. Now, the people in many mining-affected communities have to buy water for drinking and home(prenominal) use from outside sources through with(predicate) water delivery trucks, or by lining up for hours in the few remaining water sources to contract up a gallon of water. 2. Pollution of Water and Soil Open-pit and underground bulk mining by Philex in Tuba and Lepanto in Mankayan generate ore and tailings at a rate of up to 2,500 metric tons per mine per day. 9 Toxic mine tailings are usually impounded in tailings dams. However, when pressure in the tailings dams builds up, especially during times of heavy rainfall, the mining companies drain their tailings dams of water or face the risk of having the dams burst or collapse. In either crusade, the tailings eventually find their way out, polluting the water and silting up the rivers and adjacent lands. People of Mankayan call in the Abra River before the mine. It was deep and narrow, just 5 meters wide, full of fish and adjoin by verdant rice paddies.Now there is a wide gorge of barren land on either side of the dirty river. return trees and animals have died from the poisoned water and rice crops are stunted. 10 When Lepanto started operations in 1936, the company dumped mine tailings and waste straight into the river. It was only in the 1960s that the first tailings dam was built. The dam was abandoned after less than 10 years and the land became unsuitable for agriculture. Tailings dam 2 was constructed in the 1970s. Its collapse caused the defilement of nearby ricefields.Tailings Dam 3 and a diversion tunnel gave way in 1986 during a strong typhoon. Another spillway collapsed after a typhoon in 1993. The spilled tailings encroached on riverbanks and destroyed ricefields downstream. They also caused the riverbed to rise and the polluted water to backflow into other tributaries of the Abra Ri ver. 11 An Environmental Investigative Mission (EIM) in September 2002 indictaed that heavy metal content (lead, cadmium and blur) was elevated in the soil and waters downstream from the Lepanto mine.Water samples from the Abra River were found to have low take aim pH ( bitter) capable of solubilizing heavy metals. One resident who used tease taken from the Mankayan River for construction of his house reported that the steel bar reinforcements were corrode after a few months. The same EIM report revealed dissolve atomic number 8 readings at the CIP Mill Outlet and at Tailings Dam 5A to be infra 2 mg/L. aquatic life cannot survive in conditions where dissolved oxygen is below 2 mg/L.Sulfuric acid is also believed to be the cause of the rotten eggs smell that residents report when mine tailings are released into the Mankayan River during heavy rainfall. Another concern is the high amount of Total suspend Solids (TSS) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) found at various points of the Mankayan River downstream from Tailings Dam 5A. 12 Abandoned mine sites like Benguet Corporation and Itogon-Suyoc Mines in Itogon have long damaging impacts on rivers and their surrounding fields because of the build up of acidic mine water.Acid mine drainage comes from both surface and underground mine workings, waste rock, tailings piles and tailings ponds. 13 Pollution of this kind can continue long after a mine is closed or abandoned, and the water that leaches into the ecosystem is frequently acidic, killing rivers and posing bring aroundth risks to local communities. 14 3. Siltation Siltation of rivers is a serious occupation in Benguet resulting from mining operations and dam construction. The Ambuklao and Binga dams are stark examples of the unwholesome impacts of siltation and megadams on rivers.The steadily rising take of silt in the dam reservoirs and along the Agno River upstream of the dams is covering a wider and wider area around the dams and continues to destro y more and more rice fields. In the depicted object of the Ambuklao dam, the communities of Bangao and Balacbac were located far above the predicted water level of the dam and 17 kilometers away from the predicted edge of the reservoir. These two communities are now inundated because of the rising water level and accumulation of silt upstream along the Agno River. Government authorities stop the increasing siltation as a natural phenomenon.However, the Ibaloy people know that the dams are the real culprit. The farmlands and communities were never affected by silt before the dams were built despite storms and earthquakes. The dams obstruct the free flow of water and silt down to the lowlands. Silt deposits built up in the dam reservoir and blocked oncoming silt that receded backwards upstream, swamping and inundating all farmlands and communities within reach. 15 In the case of the Philex, a tailings dam collapsed in 1992, releasing some 80 million tons of tailings and causing hea vy siltation in the irrigation system downstream.The company paying(a) Php5 million to the affected farmers. Again, during a typhoon in 2001, another tailings dam of Philex collapsed. Ricefields in San Manuel and Binalonan, Pangasinan, were buried in toxic silt a meter deep. This time, Philex refused to entertain responsibility for the disaster putting the blame on nature. 16 In the case of Lepanto, the downstream impact of tailings disposal is that along a 25-kilometer stretch of the Abra River, some 465 hectares of riceland have been washed out. 17 Further, Lepantos claim that Tailings Dam 5A is actually help to contain siltation is deceiving.The high level of TDS and TSS from the CIP Mill Outlet up to Tailings Dam 5A indicates that the silt originates from company operations and is not imputable to natural siltation. 18 4. Serious health problems due to water, soil and air pollution contaminant of water, soil and air contributes to increased toxic build-up in peoples bodies. Asthma and other respiratory problems often affect local communities as well as mine workers. When peoples health deteriorates, their magnate to work and earn money is reduced even further. The old and the untested are particularly vulnerable. 19In 1985, a copper ore dryer was installed by Lepanto. The copper dryer affected the 3 barangays of Paco, Colalo and Cabiten in Mankayan. Local residents complained of abnormal decrease of crops, sickness and death of domestic animals and high incidence of respiratory ailments. The company was forced to close down the dryer in the face of peoples opposition. 20 The most common symptoms felt by residents of Mankayan who have inhaled chemic fumes emanating from the mine are headache, dizziness, cough, chest pain, nasal and eye irritation. former(a) symptoms reported are itching of the skin, rashes and diarrhea.Some residents report that wounds take longer to heal when exposed to the water of the Abra River. Because of past adverse reaction s, people avoid come through with the river water. They do not allow children to bathe in the river. Nor do they let their animals drink from it. Incidence of cancer is a cause for further take over as it is among the top 3 causes of mortality in some affected communities. 21 Women are primarily responsible for maintaining the health of the family and the community. As such, women have to carry the burden of ill health arising from environmental destruction and pollution due to mining operations.At the height of the open pit mine and mill in Itogon, some pregnant women suffered miscarriage, while others experienced disorders of the skin, respiratory tract and breed when exposed to toxic fumes emanating from the mill. The drying up of natural water sources in another contributory factor in the poor health and sanitisation in the community. 22 5. Loss of Flora, Fauna, Biodiversity, and feed insecurity The drainage area of the Abra River is home to about 1689 species of plants b elonging to 144 families, including 177 species of orchids in 47 genera. More than half(prenominal) (51. %) of the plants found within the area are classified as endemics with 60. 7% of all the orchids classified as such. Benguet has the highest plant species diversity within the river washbowl area compared to other provinces. The EIM conducted in September 2002 noted gross differences between the waterways located directly below the Lepanto mining operations and tributaries originating from sources elsewhere. When the company started a fishpond in March 2001, all the fingerlings died after only 4 days. Aquatic organisms like udang (shrimp) and igat (eel) are reportedly becoming rare.Residents observed fish disease and deformities, aside from a drop in the fish catch. Fishkills occur both rainy season, attributed to the release of water from the tailings dams by the company. The loss in aquatic life is a major change in the life fight system of the communities who rely on the r iver for daily food. Not only are livelihood sources affected, but so is the general biodiversity damaged, causing breakdowns in the food web. Once-common birds and tree species have disappeared. Among the bird species reported now to be rarely seen are pagaw, tuklaw and kannaway.Trees such as the kamantires and burbala were also identified to be no longer in significant quantities. 23 6. Dislocation of Indigenous People from hereditary Land and traditional Livelihoods Large-scale corporate mining and dams have luxate the indigenous Kankanaey and Ibaloy people from their catching lands and traditional livelihoods. Dams have caused the loss of ancestral lands to inundation and siltation. Descendants of families displaced by dams have been reduced to illegal occupants in the dams watershed areas or settlers in land own by others.Mining patents granted by the government to mining companies have denied indigenous communities of their rights to ownership and jibe over their ancestra l lands and resources. In terms of livelihood, mining concessions have taken over lands used by indigenous peoples for their traditional livelihoods ricefields, vegetable gardens, swiddens, hunting and grazing livestock. Rice fields along riverbanks have been damaged by siltation. Garden cultivators have lost their crops to surface subsidence. traditional small scale miners have lost their pocket mines and gold panning sites to the big mines and dams.Some communities have lost entire mountainsides, burial sites and hunting grounds to ground collapse and deep open pits. Traditional fishing is no longer possible in polluted rivers, replaced by commercial fishponds in dam reservoirs. An additional impact is the violation of the collective rights of the indigenous Kankanaey and Ibaloy people of their collective rights to self-determination and cultural integrity as they are displaced from the land and community that is the basis of their continued existence and identity.III. Peoples Al ternatives Peoples alternating(a)s to corporate mining and dams and indigenous systems of sustainable resource utilization and counselling can be found in indigenous communities in the Cordillera. The Ibaloy and Kankanaey people of Benguet continue to practice traditional small-scale mining till today. Traditional methods of pocket-mining and gold panning are crude but environment-friendly and have been passed down through generations since the 16th century.Small-scale mining is a community affair and access to resources is delineate by customary laws, characterized by equitable sharing, cooperation and community solidarity. Men, women, children and the elderly each have a role to play in the extraction and bear on of the ore. They extract only enough gold to meet their basic necessities and apprehend their share of the gold based on an equitable sharing system. However, as communities are deprived of their land and resources, these traditional small-scale mining methods and d ogmatic values are now under threat of vanishing.An alternative source of efficiency are microhydro dams as opposed to megadams. The experience of the micro-hydro project (MHP) of the Chapyusen Mangum-uma constitution (CMO) in the Cordillera proves the viability of a community-based and community-owned power system to provide energy for lighting, rice milling, sugar pressing, blacksmithing and carpentry. The MHP has built up the peoples capacity to lift their own local resources while ensuring affordable access of poor households to electricity.It also became an opportunity for the people to improve their organization by participating in all phases of project implementation. The observance of ubfo or the traditional system of labor exchange in community mobilization has had a positive resultant by restoring traditional cooperative practices and the free utilization and exchange of individualistic skills towards a common objective. 24 IV. Recommendations The experience of the Ka nkanaey and Ibaloy people brings to a fore the need for changes in the nonplusment paradigm and policies affecting indigenous peoples.The following recommendations, arising from various reports and fact-finding missions, are forwarded for consideration by the United Nations, by inter chauvinistic financial institutions, mining and dam companies and national governments 1. The international community should develop minimum standards for the protection of the environment and human rights that are binding on all countries and companies, based on the highest existing standards, and with effective monitoring and sanctions impose on the offending parties, be it the national government, funding institutions, or the companies. . in that respect exists the AkweKon voluntary guidelines, developed under the Convention of Biological Diversity, for the conduct of cultural, environmental and social impact assessments regarding trainings proposed to take place on, or which are presumable to impact on sacred sites and on lands and waters traditionally occupied or used by indigenous and local communities.These guidelines should be do binding rather than voluntary and could be adopted as a minimum standard by international financial institutions and national governments when implementing development projects affecting indigenous peoples. 3. Countries that are home to transnational companies should enact order that allow for require those companies to operate using the same standards wherever they operate in the world.Home countries whose nationals and corporate entities inflict damage in developing countries, particularly on indigenous peoples, should impose some form of penalty on the offending parties. 4. An international system should be created to allow complaints to be filed by affected indigenous communities against companies, governments and financial institutions whose development programs and interventions violate the rights of ownership and control by indige nous peoples over their ancestral land, territories and resources and cause serious destruction of the environment. . In the case of Benguet where the indigenous people have already suffered and will continue to suffer enormous damage to their lands and environment due to the long-term impacts of mining and dams, proper and immediate compensation and reparation should be provided to all affected people to include adequate monetary compensation, sustainable livelihood, alternative land, employment and other sources of regular income. A program for the restoration and replenishment of lands and waters destroyed by mines and dams should also be implemented. . Past experience has shown that no monetary compensation nor livelihood project could replace or surpass the destroyed ancestral land and traditional livelihoods of affected indigenous peoples. The solution to restoring the living quality and to stop the permanent destruction of the environment is to stop destructive large-scale c orporate mining and decommission unviable tailings dams and megadams. Alternatives such as chemical-free traditional small scale mining methods and community-based microhydros need to be promoted and supported. . National legislation and policy on the liberalization of mining and the energy industry need to be reviewed and rewrite as these have proven detrimental to indigenous peoples in different parts of the country. A new mining policy should support the Filipino peoples efforts towards nationalist industrialization and ensure the creation of jobs, food security, a stable economy, mitigation of environmental degradation, and environmental rehabilitation. 1 Jacqueline K. Carino. Case Study. WCD. 2000 2 APIT Tako.Mining in Philippine History 3 APIT Tako. Mining in Philippine History 4 Cordillera Peoples Alliance. December 2002. Cordillera Hydropower Projects and the Indigenous Peoples 5 APITTAKO 6 Christian maintenance and PIPLinks. Breaking Promises, making profits. Mining in the Philippines. UK. Dec. 2004 7 CA and PIPLinks 8 APIT TAKO. Mining In Philippine History Focus On The Cordillera Experience. Paper presented to the United Nations economic and Social Councils Commission on Human Rights during its Transnational Extractive Industries Review.December 2001 and revised March 2002. 9 APIT Tako. 10 CA and PIPLinks. 11 Save the Abra River Movement (STARM). What is Happening to the Abra River? A land on the Effects of Corporate Mining on the Abra River System. September 2003. 12 STARM 13 STARM 14 CA and PIPLinks 15 Jacqueline K. Carino. A case Study of the Ibaloy People and the Agno River Basin, Province of Benguet, Philippines. Presented during the Consultation on Dams, Indigenous Peoples and Ethnic Minorities. Geneva, Switzerland. August 1999) 16 Croft 17 APIT TAKO. 18 STARM 19 CA and PIPILinks 20 STARM 21 STARM 22 Jill K. Carino and Cornelia Ag-agwa. The Situation of Mining in the Cordillera Region, Philippines and its Impact on Land Rights and Indige nous Women. Paper presented during the Second transnational Conference on Women and Mining. Bolivia. 2000 23 STARM. 24 Hapit, The Official Publication of the Cordillera Peoples Alliance. 3rd Quarter 2005. A basic Service to the People The Chapyusen Micro-Hydro Project pic