Company law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 3

Company law - Essay Example Following the legal submission above, Estate Ltd has the right to indicate its interest in a property deal or transaction acting in the capacity of trustee of Healthy Eating Ltd. And it is explained above that Healthy Eating Ltd. should disregard any rights it deems necessary, maybe in the form of a compensation or remuneration. The main reason why Healthy Eating Ltd. could not expect to be paid for any losses incurred in the property transaction is that Estate Ltd has acted as a personal representative or trustee of Healthy Eating Ltd2. In other ways, this case could be interpreted in the following assumptions: (i) Common Liability: In as much as Estate Ltd is representing the interests of Healthy Eating Ltd in the sale of the property that was purchased under compulsory purchase order by the local authority, whatever liability incurred by the Holding company (Healthy Eating ltd) cannot be indemnified because the Holding company is indirectly involved in the deal, using its trustee (Estate Ltd.) (ii) Decision Rights: As a subsidiary of Healthy Eating Ltd, Estate ltd has been given the rights to act on its capacity, making its own decision concerning any commercial transactions it may deem appropriate. As a result of this, the holding company does not have any power to seek indemnity against any action taken on its behalf by its personal representative. Considering all the facts raised above, it is legally untenable for Healthy Eating ltd to expect any forms of compensation or remuneration from the local authority on account of the losses it may have incurred because of this property deal undertaken on its behalf by its trustee. (b) Liability to compensate the injured volunteers: This issue concerns about the liability incurred by a subsidiary of a company to a third party. In this case study, Research Ltd, which is a subsidiary of Healthy Eating Ltd was involved in a damages suit by

The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet Essay Example for Free

The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet Essay Lord Capulet is partially at fault because he told Juliet to take her time and find someone she loves to get married. As well as Friar Laurence because he made hasty decisions about marrying behind the backs of their parents. Romeo and Juliet because they went behind everyone’s back at such a young age to marry one another. In the tragic love story Romeo and Juliet, written by Shakespeare, Friar Laurence, Romeo, Juliet, and Lord Capulet are all at fault for Romeo and Juliet killing themselves because the use of hasty decisions. Lord Capulet, Juliet’s father, was making hasty decisions by trying to over whelm all the sadness from Tybalt’s death with the ‘good’ news of Juliet’s wedding with Paris. He tells Juliet that she is going to marry Paris that Thursday and it will be a big celebration. Only a day later he changes the date from that Thursday to a day before, Wednesday. Capulet was not the only one to make hasty decisions, Friar Laurence did as well. He was the one that agreed to marry Romeo and Juliet behind their families back. In the intro to scene six it says â€Å"†¦the two confess their loves for each other and prepare to get married by the friar†. Friar Laurence also gave Juliet the potion that would make her seem like she was dead for â€Å"two and forty hours†. Romeo and Juliet were also to blame for their deaths though. They are the ones who made the hasty decision to marry behind their parents’ backs. They were only thirteen and about sixteen as well. If Romeo had been there to talk to Juliet he would have known what was going on and he wouldn’t have killed himself because he would have known that Juliet was still alive. If Romeo didn’t kill himself neither would have Juliet. So, there were many people to blame in the deaths of the very tragic yet romantic Romeo and Juliet; Lord Capulet, Friar Laurence, and of course, themselves Romeo and Juliet.

Traumatic Brain Injury Essay -- Health, Diseases

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a sophisticated problem because of different reasons. Among the reasons are their difficulties to be diagnosed early in majority of the cases. This is because either the damage in most cases is not visible or the brain trauma does not receive the attention it deserves since patients with head injuries often times have other injuries. The other problem with head injury is that it is associated with numerous disorders and often results in different psychological symptoms that can complicate the diagnosis and treatment. It may be associated with depression, personality problems, anxiety, paranoia, or apathy. Impulsive aggression which this paper deals with is one of the challenging and complex problems that traumatic brain injury is associated with. Aggressive behavior is one of the most disruptive consequences of TBI. Its enduring problems tend to disrupt families, care givers and above all to the patient whose new behavior becomes obstacle to return to the usual role. It is also said to be the most frequent and very treatable out come of TBI. It is possible to classify aggression as impulsive and premeditated. Impulsive aggression is characterized by relatively unplanned and spontaneous, high levels of autonomic arousal and precipitation by provocation associated with negative emotions such as anger or fear It usually represents a response to a perceived stress. In addition, researches show that impulsive aggression is most common after TBI. Impulsive aggression, also referred to as reactive aggression, affective aggression, or hostile aggression, becomes pathological when aggressive responses are exaggerated in relation to the emotional provocation that occurs In contrast, premeditated aggre... ... are associated with poor social functioning. Previous studies reported that aggression was associated with disruption of family relationships Grafman, (1996) and poor occupational performance (Herzberg &Fenwick, 1988). Social integration decreases impulsive behavior and lessens the vulnerability to developing depressive disorders. Furthermore, it has been suggested that social behavior is influenced by the same biological factors as impulsiveness and aggression (i.e., prefrontal modulation and serotonergic function) (Tateno, 2003). Considering the multifactorial nature of impulsive aggression, biological, psychological and social variables that may contribute for this behavior to arise must be approached. The aggressive behavior is evidently disturbing in social life; therefore individuals that are close to the patients must obtain support (Schwarzbold, 2008).

Merton’s Theory Essay

One of the well know socialists of the twentieth century is Robert K. Merton (1910-2003). He is a major theorist who is known for creating several pivotal sociological concepts. One of his most important achievements has been the established connection between theory and research, thereby making the way for the course of sociology. Merton favored what he called middle range theories: these are theories that â€Å"lie between minor but necessary working hypotheses that evolve in abundance during day to day research and all inclusive systematic efforts to develop a unified theory that will explain all the observed uniformities of social behavior, social organization, and social change† ( Sztompka 1986). But what he gets most of his credit for is his work on the concept of the Manifest and Latent. I intend to explain his concept of Manifest and Latent. And then take a look at his Strain Theory to see whether or not it can explain crime in our society. Merton explains that there are certain concepts that arise from functionalism they are manifest and latent function . He explains manifest function as the intended result of an action. He also explained that latent function was the unintended result of action. Now Merton is not the one who coined these terms he give that credit to Freud (1915). Both of these men contended that almost every action had manifest and latent functions. Although Merton took it a step further he argued that some times the latent function was far more important than the manifest function. One of his greatest examples of this is the Hopi rain dance. This is where he explained how the dance (action) was to create rain (manifest) although not every time was there rain (latent). But he went further he explain that although the rain did not create rain it created a special bonding (another latent) with in the Hopi tribe. This in essence showed that not all latent functions are bad and that some of the unintended results can have a profound benefit. This is in slight contrast to other socialist then again it is not really. It is Merton expanding on theses philosophies and bringing them current within society. Now we see that Merton’s manifest and latent functions greatly enhanced the notion of society as a system of interwoven parts, not only because he acknowledges there are various functions to each part. But because of the differences of the various functions have with in each part that might not coincide with each other or that they may even conflict. Merton â€Å"emphasized that different parts of a system might be at odds with each other and, thus, that even functional or beneficial institutions or sub systems can produce dysfunctions or unintended consequences as well† (Appelrouth). This brings us to two more parts of Merton’s theory, deviance and dysfunction. Merton was extremely influential of the theory of deviance. It is the most cited article in sociology. Merton tried to explain the variances in rates of deviance according to social structural location. To explain deviance from a sociological view deviance refers to the actions that do not conform to the dominant norms or values in a social group or society. Merton believed that deviance came about when there was a disconnect between culture and society. This he said happened when values become out of sync with the means of being able to achieve them. One of the better ways Merton showed this was that success in society means having a good job and making a lot of money. But when there are no good jobs to make the money to be successful people will turn to illegal means to make enough money to be considered successful. This brings about an unintended consequence, it is because of this disconnect or in other words it brings about a dysfunction. Now dysfunction was not coined by Merton, it was first emphasized by Emile Durkheim who stated â€Å" that while positive social changes , such as periods of economic growth, might alleviate certain problems, they may also produce significant unanticipated consequences (such as an increased likelihood for moral disorder)† (Appelrouth). Merton took what Durkheim had proposed and elaborated on this showing that although positive social changes may have unintended negative consequences, you can also have a negative social changes that can produce unintended positive consequences. Although Merton showed both sides he is better known for highlighting the negative consequences. Now we look at Merton’ strain theory to try and explain it as I believe  Merton saw it. . Merton believed that crime did not simply arise from the deviant values incorporated in say, slum neighborhoods. Rather crime emerged from mainstream conventional values, which for example, all Americans were socialized into. Merton believed that the core values stressed material success; however, the problem was that not every American was equally placed to achieve this success. This in turn leads to strain, of which crime is concomitant. American society is criminally programed argued Merton. The idea of the ‘American Dream’ was, according to Merton, a myth, subverted as it were by the persistence of poverty, epidemic racial discrimination and numerous disadvantages faced by blacks and Hispanics. All this helps contribute to the high levels of crime, the solution being to create more opportunities for the poor in order to augment their chances of legitimately achieving material success. Merton’s thinking was that if crime resulted from a lack of legitimate opportunities to achieve the goal of material success, than increasing those opportunities ought to lessen crime. Merton believed that individuals living in American society are subconsciously socialized into desiring certain goals, primarily that of covert material success. Society itself provides the means to do this high school, college, business opportunities and university, however, where opportunities are blocked for individuals because of, for example, social class and race, then problems of ‘strain’ arise. As Merton put it: â€Å"there is a contradiction between the cultural emphasis on pecuniary ambition and the social opportunities to achieve it†. This Merton called an â€Å"anomic society†, from which crime naturally occurs. If we look at Merton’s strain theory, and try to explain whether it adequately explains deviance and crime in our society. I would have to say that it does. Everyone want to succeed but there always seem to be obstacles. By human nature I believe people are programed to take the path of least resistance. Especially when there are obstacles. So Merton is absolutely right by saying if there are not enough jobs to make money people will make money illegal by selling drug or doing whatever have you. I believe he is also right that this crime does not come from the slums, as we know there are a lot of influential people in jail. I believe this is because they just got too greedy. I guess once you have you don’t want to be a have not. Reference: Alder, F 1995 Opportunity Structure Appelrouth, S 2008 Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory Merton, R 1996 revision On Social Structure and Science

What Causes Social Intolerance?

‘Across multiple disciplines in the social sciences, the study of social inequality represents a prominent area of research. ’ Social tolerance has commonly factored as a point of political study. This can be seen as a result of an increasingly pluralistic society, which encompasses vast elements of race, religion, ethnicity, sexuality and general diversity. Due to this greater emphasis has been cast upon the concept toleration. To a degree this can be perceived as a result of globalization, which has seen a vast influx of people from low income to high-income countries. Social intolerance can also be viewed within a historical context, for example a prominent area of study is the Nazi Germany treatment of the Jewish race, as well as modern day relations. Throughout my study, I am going to break down with the help of political research, what the main causes of social intolerance are, as the issue of social tolerance continues to be prominent within today’s societies across the globe. There are varying arguments regarding what is the root cause of such intolerance, however, we must recognize that the effects of social intolerance is one which is hard to quantify. This is because ‘how one responds to a survey question concerning attitudes toward a group will not accurately reflect how the respondent will react when encountering an individual from that group. ’ Therefore it is questionable to what degree we can rely on surveys, as often people responses do not always reflect true attitudes, as people can be dishonest, or answer in ways they believe to be more appealing than their true feelings. Social tolerance is a somewhat broad concept. As argued by Professor Popper, ‘Toleration is a necessary consequence of our being human we are all products of frailty: fallible and prone to error. So let us mutually pardon each other’s follies. ’ Thus meaning that we are all subject to such a disposition. Susan Mendes defines tolerance as an appeal to the propriety of allowing each individual to pursue his own life in whichever way he thinks best for him. This justification often refers to the requirement that we show respect for persons as autonomous agents. Such descriptions of tolerance infer that open-mindedness is a crucial condition for peace and stability and a balanced co-existence. It places emphasis upon the individual’s role within society and their responsibility to act in accordance. There is also a moral element in relation to such attitudes ‘a principled recognition that the â€Å"others† have rights even if the exercise those rights in unattractive ways. ’ Within my study, I will be drawing upon research data from previous experiments, and will be using data from the European Social Survey, as the areas I have been predominantly looking at are within Europe and on a personal level, this information is relative to where I live. I believe that ultimately one of the main elements of social intolerance are based amidst certain elements of the demographic. I believe characteristics such as age, religion, education and region shape our prejudices. Our society is ever evolving and broadening, and diversity has become a way of life to many. However, I believe that the older more sheltered and less educated population are more likely to be less tolerant and likely to support false and negative stereotypes, this is because they are less likely to engage with individuals from said groups, therefore they are more likely to support negative stereotypes, and integration helps eliminate such prejudice. Research suggests that those with education, who live in urban areas, or are religious liberals tend to hold more positive attitudes’ I believe that these views will be reflected in on the European Social Survey regarding ‘Qualifying for Immigration’. I am going to focus on the variables demonstrating the influences of economic considerations as well as nationality, as these reflect further arguments demonstrated within my essa y. ‘The immigrant is committed to the way of life in the country they are moving to’. The results support the idea that the immigrant being committed to the way of life ‘is extremely important’ across Europe. It also supports the belief that although economic factors are important, in relation to the immigrant assimilating to the nation states way of life, and both tie in with the arguments regarding social identity. (See Appendix 1 & 2) Social identity theory states that an integral element of an individuals’ sense of who they are is based upon groups that they belong to or identify with. This concept of identity can be related to various levels, such as nationality, ethnicity, religion, color or other characteristics. The result of this is that individuals are able to place themselves within groups that embody such characteristics. Individuals can maintain membership of more than one group. Social Identity theory believes that ‘humans define themselves, as well as others, largely in terms of the social groups to which they belong’. Social intolerance can be seen to develop from relations between different groups, ‘One of the major motivational assumptions of social identity theory is that all people will strive to achieve a positive social identity. ’ As a result of the desire for positive affiliation, to evaluate their own group positively, they are often – though not always motivated to evaluate other groups negatively. This underpins the tendency for social tensions to develop, as it is often installed by the conviction that certain groups are superior. Pressures therefore often arise, as groups believe that the positive elements within ones own group needs to be protected from the negative influences attributed to others. This can result in social prejudice and discrimination where ‘subordinate groups have predominantly negative stereotypic attributions when evaluated by dominant group members. ’ Social dominance theory begins with the observation that all human societies are inherently group-based hierarchies and are inherently oppressive. This therefore means that social intolerance is derived from the hierarchal structure of society, which is composed of domineering group-based structure. Grouping reflects the differing elements within society, such as nation states, races, class, ethnicity, religion, etc. It is believed that only certain individuals are able to be obtain positions of power, and certain characteristics are deemed necessary, such as intelligence. Within this theory it is believed that men are more suited to domineering positions of group power than women. In order for this there are ‘Hierarchy –enhancing environments are social contexts that encourage or reinforce the acceptance and support for social inequality. ’ Legitimising myths are a way in which hierarchal order can be maintained; they are seen as ‘attitudes, values, beliefs, or ideologies that provide moral and intellectual support to and justification for the group’. To phrase it differently, legitimising myths are seen as a way in which discrimination and intolerance can be justified in order to promote structure. This theory is clearly limited in its views, as it does little to explain outer group relationships which may go against the grain of hierarchy. It can be seen that to a certain degree we do construct such social orders within society, but this theory is far too totalitarian and does not fit well within society as it does not explain a magnitude of group relationships. Group conflict theory, as is demonstrated in Sherif and Horland’s Robbers Case Experiment (1954) helps reflect the tensions that can arise through group competition. The Robber’s Cave experiment, between two groups of young middle class boys concluded that ‘intergroup competition rather quickly leads to ethnocentrism and group conflict, but increases levels of inter-group morale, cohesiveness, and cooperation as well. ’ This experiment supports the belief that groups compete and conflict, as these ‘are largely functions of â€Å"realistic† competition between groups over scarce resources. ’ It’s therefore supports the rational choice theory that humans are predisposed to act selfishly and intolerance is often a product of this. For instance if a group hinders another’s best interests either economically, politically or socially, this can cause an out lash of intolerance. Threat to national identity can be seen as a motivating factor in anti immigrant sentiment. It can often be hard for new immigrants to assimilate into another country’s culture, as often issues especially those such as religion and race can make assimilation difficult. The Sniderman study into Dutch culture draws to attention and quantifies these perceived threats to society and identity regarding new immigrants. Sniderman argues that the perceived threat to culture overrides economic threats ‘perceiving a threat to Dutch culture has by the far largest impact in provoking hostility. ’ He argues however that positive economic conditions, as seen within the Netherlands, results in the greater perceived threat against culture. This perceived threat is reflected in Sniderman’s research, which shows that four of every five Dutch want to stiffen immigration requirements when immigrants do not speak Dutch fluently and do not have a good chance to fit in smoothly ith Dutch culture, compared to two of five when they do. To look at the causes of social intolerance, we ought to look more closely at the psychology of the individual. Experimental research has demonstrated that unspoken racial attitudes exist even for individuals who score low on the measures of explicit racial prejudice and these beliefs influence judgements and perceptions. This can be reflected in survey results, as deep within our consciousness, as we are, to a certain extent, affected by the stereotypes and hierarchies that surround us. The psychological view is that implicit racial stereotypes and prejudices are held by everyone because they are part of how the human mind works in the context of a culture including stereotypical representations. ’ The question therefore is, how do we develop such a consciousness? It can be seen through a number of studies which point towards ‘stereotypical portrayals in the media and analyze the history of these portrayals’. It can also be seen that from a young age, those around us, for instance parents and social groups, influence our ideals. We can be seen to adapt to the beliefs of others through the ‘process of self-selection (i. e. , the process by which individuals within a peer group influence each other and become more similar on a characteristic over time). These beliefs can manifest into discriminatory treatment, for example in the understanding of ‘implicit prejudice studies suggest that even among persons who hold sincere belief in race blindness, images and depictions of racial groups learned beginning in childhood are influential on their thinking’. These attitudes can come to surface in particular situations, for instance job discrimination. The regular use of symbols can help change and condition the way in which we think, and can without knowing perforate into our consciousness. ‘Symbolic predispositions are usually strong attitudes normally acquired through classical conditioning in early life. ’ It can therefore be seen as a lengthy and gradual process. The careful use of symbols can play to different ideals of the human condition, for instance certain symbols, such as flags, can install a sense of patriotism and pride, but in contrast, they can also be used to represent social evils, such as the Nazi swastika. People can also be used as symbolic images to install emotion and can represent social freedom, strength and empowerment, as seen through the imagery of Jesus and Martin Luther King, Jr. However, symbols can carry what seems like disproportionate power and can be used to, ‘evoke and mobilize human emotions. Virtually every war in America has been fought around such rallying symbols. Symbols can be manipulated and spun in order to represent something more credible, an example of this is the British National Party, rousing up symbolic patriotic imagery of Winston Churchill and the Union flag to help motivate emotion and support in regards to their immigration policies. Symbols can be used as a tool to play on fear, and can therefore help to breed intolerance by appealing to people’s emotions. It has previously been argued that increased amounts of immigration has generated greater racial friction, it was believed that ‘a superordinate group (e. . , whites) becomes more racially hostile as the size of the proximate subordinate group increases, which punitively threatens the former’s economic and social privilege (Oliver and Wong 2003, 568)’. Therefore it can be seen that the increased levels of immigration generates greater social intolerance. However, in contrast to this argument, recent studies have contended that actually ‘increased contact makes it difficult for groups to accept typically negative stereotypes and also increases the probability of both groups’ holding shared values (Forbes 1997). This supports the belief that racial segregation contributes considerably to social intolerance, as it is believ ed through integration and contact, negative stereotypes and general ignorance can be dispelled when personal relationships are developed. I believe that is a vital factor in the promotion of inter-group relations, that a greater emphasis is played on increased contact. Even though higher immigration levels can cause anti-sentiment, I believe this predominantly affects highly segregated areas, as can be seen within parts of the United States. Economic factors can be a key feature contributing to attitudes of social intolerance. This can be seen upon a personal as well as a collective level. The degree one feels affected by economic threats can be seen as objective, it is argued that ‘opposition to immigrants is rooted ultimately in the economic logic of people’s situations. ’ Therefore it can often be perceived that attitudes to immigrant minorities regarding economic factors are determined by individualistic circumstances. This is evident in regards to unemployment and financial instability. People who can be perceived to be in an awkward financial situation are therefore more likely to be less tolerant, as they are more prone to support the belief that immigration has contributed to their own lack of welfare, jobs and resources. It should not be overlooked that economic factors contribute towards intolerant sentiment, especially as it involves the concept of promoting self-interest. But immigration can also contribute to economic success as reflected through Locke’s line of argument for toleration in regards to Huguenot refugees ‘claiming that the refugees should be accepted since they would bring economic advantages to England. Therefore it must be understood that causality can run both ways. Changes within the demographic can also be seen to have a prominent effect on attitudes towards social tolerance. ‘Research suggests that those with more education, who live in urban areas, or are religious liberals tend to hold more positive attitudes’ G reater education is a vital way in which social intolerance can be controlled. This is mainly due to the enlightenment education casts upon the collective ills and ignorance’s of elements of society which often results in discrimination and social intolerance. Greater toleration can be seen as a result of living in urban areas, as they are more likely to offer diversity and promote assimilation. This supports the social contact theory, which argues that ‘The presence of a large minority population in a highly integrated area will result in more interracial contact, initiating a corrective for the hostility that threat otherwise produces. ’ Both these lines of argument support the theory that segregation helps install greater social intolerance, as through racial integration, individuals can break through barriers such as misconstrued racial stereotypes and prejudice. In conclusion, a common theme throughout has been the presence of different factions within society. Groups have provided the basis for division, therefore resulting in competition, generating all different causes of social intolerance. Ultimately I believe that one of the greatest factors which has contributed to one of the most predominant reasons for social intolerance is the lack of interaction between groups, especially those of race. This has meant that different cultures and groups have found it difficult to assimilate especially within Western society, this has resulted in a lack of understanding and empathy between cultures. This I believe has helped enforce stereotypes bridging a further gap, and therefore greater levels of intolerance. However, ultimately we as individuals need to break these boundaries. From a young age, imagery and symbols are presented to one another, and walls are built between the different sects. However, they can be broken down and proper stable relations can be built between groups, helping a respect and cultural understanding, ultimately resulting in less causations for social intolerance.

How to Make a Storm Glass to Predict the Weather

How to Make a Storm Glass to Predict the Weather You may not feel the approach of impending storms, but the weather causes changes in the atmosphere that affect chemical reactions. You can use your command of chemistry to make a storm glass to help predict the weather. Storm Glass Materials 2.5 g potassium nitrate2.5 g ammonium chloride33 mL distilled water40 mL ethanol10 g natural camphor How to Make the Storm Glass Dissolve the potassium nitrate and ammonium chloride in the water.Dissolve the camphor in the ethanol.Add the potassium nitrate and ammonium chloride solution to the camphor solution. You may need to warm the solutions to get them to mix.Either place the mixture in a corked test tube or seal it within glass. To seal glass, apply heat to the top of the tube until it softens, and tilt the tube so the glass edges melt together. If you use a cork, wrap it with parafilm or coat it with wax to ensure a good seal. A properly prepared storm glass should contain colorless, transparent liquid that will cloud or form crystals or other structures in response to the external environment. However, impurities in the ingredients may result in a colored liquid. Its impossible to predict whether or not these impurities will prevent the storm glass from working. A slight tint (amber, for example) may not be cause for concern. If the solution is always cloudy, its likely the glass wont function as intended. How to Interpret the Storm Glass A storm glass may present the following appearance: Clear liquid: bright and clear weatherCloudy liquid: cloudy weather, perhaps with precipitationSmall dots in the liquid: potentially humid or foggy weatherCloudy liquid with small stars: thunderstorms or snow, depending on the temperatureLarge flakes scattered throughout the liquid: overcast skies, possibly with rain or snowCrystals at the bottom: frostThreads near the top: wind The best way to associate the appearance of the storm glass with the weather is to keep a log. Record your observations about the glass and the weather. In addition to the characteristics of the liquid (clear, cloudy, stars, threads, flakes, crystals, and the location of crystals), record as much data as possible about the weather. If possible, include temperature, barometer readings (pressure), and relative humidity. Over time, youll be able to predict the weather based on how your glass behaves. Keep in mind, a storm glass is more of a curiosity than a scientific instrument. Its better to allow the weather service to make predictions. How the Storm Glass Works The premise of the functioning of the storm glass is that temperature and pressure affect solubility, sometimes resulting in a clear liquid and other times causing precipitants to form. In similar barometers, the liquid level moves up or down a tube in response to atmospheric pressure. Sealed glasses are not exposed to the pressure changes that would account for much of the observed behavior. Some people have proposed that surface interactions between the glass wall of the barometer and the liquid contents account for the crystals. Explanations sometimes include effects of electricity or quantum tunneling across the glass. History of the Storm Glass This type of storm glass was used by Robert FitzRoy, the captain of the HMS Beagle during Charles Darwins voyage. FitzRoy acted as meteorologist and hydrologist for the journey. FitzRoy stated storm glasses had been made in England for at least a century before his 1863 publication of The Weather Book. He had started to study the glasses in 1825. FitzRoy described their properties and noted there was a wide variation in the functioning of the glasses, depending on the formula and method used to create them. The basic formula of the liquid of a good storm glass consisted of camphor, partially dissolved in alcohol; along with water; ethanol; and a bit of air space. FitzRoy emphasized the glass needed to be hermetically sealed, not open to the outside environment. Modern storm glasses are widely available as curiosities. The reader may expect variation in their appearance and function, as the formula for making the glass is as much an art as a science.

How to Publish a Childrens Book in 6 Simple Steps

How to Publish a Childrens Book in 6 Simple Steps How to Publish a Children's Book: A Guide for First-Time Authors In the early 1990s, Julia Donaldson - a former busker and wife of a university lecturer - was approached by a publisher who wanted to adapt one of her songs for the BBC. With the release of A Squash and a Squeeze, Donaldson published her first children’s book at the age of 45, igniting a career that resulted in modern classics like The Gruffalo, Room on the Broom, and Stick Man.Donaldson had the edge over most first-time authors, in that she had a background in kid's TV. But how does a regular person - one with no connections to the arts - become a published author? In this post, we’ll show you how to publish a children's book and get it into the hands (and hearts) of young readers everywhere. First-time authors: How do you get your children's book published? 1. Know the marketKnowing your audience is essential when you’re writing your book and crucial when you’re selling it. The first thing an editor wants to know is whether it’s the kind of book they can sell. Homing in on your book’s target audience will also help demonstrate your understanding of the publishing business, which is something most editors want in a collaborator.What are the age ranges for children's books?Broadly speaking, children’s fiction is divided into four categories:Picture Books: under 5 years old, under 1,000 wordsEarly Readers: 5+ years old, 2,000 to 5,000 wordsChapter Books: 6-9 years old, 5,000 to 10,000 wordsMiddle Grade (MG): 8-12 years old, 30,000 to 50,000 wordsYoung Adult (YA): 12-18 years old, 50,000 to 100,00 wordsModern editors take word count quite seriously. They rarely have time to thoroughly edit the books they acquire, so if you’ve written a 200,0000-word middle-grade opus, most editors will think,  "Who needs that kind of stress?† and give it a hard pass.If you want to learn more about writing for each category in children's publishing, sign up for this free online course on Reedsy Learning. Research the marketYou want to see firsthand what bookstores are selling and promoting. Scanning Amazon's Best Sellers list is fine, but going into a Barnes Noble will give you a much better idea of ongoing trends. Brick and mortar stores still make up a large chunk of the children’s market and - more so than with adult books - most parents still prefer them over online retailers.As we mentioned earlier, regardless of whether they're self-publishing, children's authors are expected to do a significant share of the marketing work. 80% of the time, marketing "kidlit" is the same as marketing any other book. There are dozens of great book marketing ideas for you to mine - from creating a mailing list to running promotions with other authors.In this section, we’ll focus on the other 20%: the marketing techniques that are unique to children’s books.Reviews are even more importantParents rely more on reviews when buying books for their children than when theyâ€⠄¢re doing it for themselves. They want to see what other parents think, how other children have enjoyed it, and whether the subject matter is appropriate for their own kids.Even more so than with a self-published thriller or romance novel, a picture book with no reviews will really struggle to sell - and will be impossible to place in a library or bookstore. To learn how to get reviews for your book, check out this post.Look to online communities for influencers and a street teamBlogs, Instagram, Facebook Groups, Twitter, Reddit. These days, most parents of young kids are millennials. As a result, they will rely on the internet for almost any kind of recommendation (another generalization, admittedly).Search through Facebook for children’s book groups, or groups that might be concerned with the topic of your book. If you’ve written a picture book about firetrucks, you can bet there’s a Facebook group of people (or people with kids) who love fire trucks.Share p ictures of your book on Instagram or Twitter using relevant hashtags - ones that either deal with your book’s topic (#unicorns #firetrucks) or tap directly into your audience (#mommylifestyle #picturebooksaremyjam).Work with an influencerYou will have likely heard of the term "influencer," most commonly used to describe YouTube or Instagram personalities who get paid by brands to promote products. While it’s not a bad idea to reach out of any of these people whose interests align with your book, remember that influencers come in many forms!Yvonne Jones wrote a picture book about a monster truck (Lil’ Foot the Monster Truck) and to promote it, she reached out to Bob Chandler, creator of Bigfoot and originator of the monster truck sport. He liked the book and gave her a short review, which then helped get her foot in the door with various monster truck associations and blogs.Similarly, if you can identify someone who has some clout amongst people who might buy yo ur book, then politely reach out, introduce yourself and offer to send them a copy of your book.School visits!Most schools will welcome visits from authors - in fact, some schools even set aside an annual budget for it. So why not get in touch with an administrator or a librarian and ask what you can do for them? And if you’re doing the school visit for free, Jones suggests taking the opportunity to sell some copies.â€Å"Follow up your first email with a phone call to let them know that you visit local schools for free, in return for the school sending slips home, offering the chance to buy signed copies of the book.†Of course, there are plenty of other marketing avenues to pursue - many of which you can learn about on Reedsy’s free course on children’s book marketing.Are you an aspiring or experienced children’s writer? Share your thoughts in the comments below.

Tips for Effective Teacher to Teacher Communication

Tips for Effective Teacher to Teacher Communication Effective teacher to teacher communication is vitally essential to your success as a teacher. Regular collaboration and team planning sessions are extremely valuable. Engaging in these practices has a positive impact on teacher effectiveness. Education is a highly difficult concept for those outside the field to understand. Having peers that you can collaborate with and lean on during tough times is essential. If you find yourself in isolation and/or always having a conflict with your peers, then there is a reasonable chance that you may need to make some changes yourself. What to Avoid When Talking to Fellow Faculty Here are seven things to avoid when trying to build positive relationships with faculty and staff members at school. Do not talk about or discuss your co-workers with your students.  It undermines the authority of that teacher and additionally taints your credibility.Do not engage in conversation or discuss your co-workers with a parent. Doing so is unprofessional at best and will create significant problems.Do not talk about or discuss your co-worker with other co-workers. It creates an atmosphere of divisiveness, mistrust, and animosity.Do not isolate yourself on a regular basis.  It is not a healthy practice.  It serves as a hindrance to your overall growth as a teacher.Avoid being confrontational or combative.  Be professional.  You may disagree with someone engaging them inappropriately is juvenile at best which undermines your role as a teacher.Avoid starting, spreading, or discussing gossip and hearsay about parents, students, and/or co-workers. Gossip has no place in a school and will create long-term problems.Avoid being critical of your co-workers.  Build them up, encourage th em, offer constructive criticism, but never criticize how they do things. It will do more harm than good. How to Build Positive Relationships With Staff Members Here are eleven things to keep in mind when trying to build positive relationships with faculty and staff members at school. Encourage and show kindness and humility. Never let an opportunity to show kindness or encouragement to others to pass. Praise exemplary work, regardless of the person that did it. Sometimes you can turn even the most hardened of your fellow workers into real softies once they realize that you are not afraid to compliment them or give encouraging words, despite how they may perceive you ordinarily. At the same time, when giving criticism, do it helpfully and gently, never spitefully. Show concern for anothers feelings and well being. You will benefit immensely from even the smallest kindness shown.Be happy. Every day you go to work, you need to make a choice to be happy. Making a choice to be happy on a day to day basis will make people around you more comfortable on a day to day basis. Don’t dwell on negatives and maintain a positive attitude.Refuse to engage in gossip or hearsay. Dont allow gossip to rule your life. In the workplace, morale is vitally essential. Gossip will tear apart a staff faster than anything else. Do not engage in it and nip it in the bud when it is presented to you. Let the water roll off your back. Don’t let negative things said about you get under your skin. Know who you are and believe in yourself. Most people that talk negatively about other people do so out of ignorance. Let your actions determine how others see you, and they will not believe the negative things said.Collaborate with your peers – Collaboration is vitally essential among teachers. Don’t be afraid to offer constructive criticism and advice with a take it or leave it approach. Also of equal importance, don’t be afraid to ask questions or to ask for help in your classroom. Too many teachers think this is a weakness when it is truly a strength. Finally, master teachers share ideas with others. This profession is truly about what is best for the students. If you have a brilliant idea that you believe in, then share it with those around you.Watch what you say to people. How you say something counts for just as much as what you say. Tone does matter. Whe n confronted with a difficult situation, always say less than you think. Holding your tongue in a difficult situation will make it easier for you in the long run because it will create confidence among others in your ability to handle a similar situation. If you make a promise, you better be prepared to keep it. If you intend to make promises, you had better be prepared to keep them, no matter what the cost. You will lose the respect of your peers quicker than it took you to gain it by breaking promises. When you tell someone that you intend to do something, it is your responsibility to see to it that you follow through.Learn about others’ outside interests. Find a common interest that you have with others (e.g. grandchildren, sports, movies, etc.) and spark a conversation. Having a caring attitude will build trust and confidence in others. When others are joyful, rejoice with them; when troubled or in mourning, be sympathetic. Make sure each person around you knows that you value them and know that they are important.Be open-minded. Do not get into arguments. Discuss things with people rather than argue. Being combative or disagreeable is likely to put others off. If you don’t agree with something, think your response t hrough and don’t be argumentative or judgmental in what you say. Understand that some peoples’ feelings are hurt easier than others. Humor can bring people together, but it can also tear people apart. Before you tease or joke with a person, make sure you know how they are going to take it. Everyone is different in this aspect. Take into account another persons feelings before you poke fun.Don’t worry about accolades. Do your best. Its the best you can do. Let others see your work ethic, and you will be able to take pride and pleasure in a job well done.

An Overview on How to Write Reports and Essays and to Set out Research Paper

An Overview on How to Write Reports and Essays and to Set out Methodology - Research Paper Example In case of references where no date is mentioned, the term n.d. i.e., no date is used to denote that no date is available for citing. In case the name of the author is not available, it is mandatory to cite the name of the author who has cited it in their work/s by mentioning cited by. For instance, It is advisable to ensure that citations from other authors must be used with extreme caution and care and if at all such works are cited, adequate care must be taken to apply the accurate conventions. In the case where quotations used in the text are fewer than three lines, it must be: (a) placed within the text, (b) in quotation marks and (c) in italics while in case of quotations exceeding three lines, the same should be placed within quotation marks, in italics, blocked, indented and single-spaced. Organizational learning has always been a centre of focus for several decades. Learning in itself is given due importance owing to its contributions and outcomes in enhancing the overall organizational productivity as well as the environment. The term Learning Organization which was first used in the 1980s is defined as: "any company having a climate that speeds up individual and group learning" (Kirk 1996 Pp.3). The concept has been defined differently by different authors, however, the perception of three of such authors is presented below: According to Senge (1994), the Learning Organization is: â€Å"an organization that is continually expanding its capacity to create its future.  

To what extent does digital media encourage antistatic behaviour again Coursework

To what extent does digital media encourage antistatic behaviour again the government - Coursework Example Its usage is not just limited to one part of the world, rather it has seen its usage in parts of the world where there was discontent and dismay felt against the ruling elites. The social media has become an emblem of free expression and the people’s voice. While the other mediums such as the television, radio, and newspaper and publishing is often subjected to the censorship of the governments in the different parts of the world, the social media has seen been able to bring about the like minded people to the platform. This paper looks into the overall role of social media and the modern digital technology that has enabled the people to mobilize. The cases that are to be taken include the examples of Arab Spring, the recently held agitation and dismay against Turkish government, the role of social media in Iran, YouTube ban in number of countries, namely North Korea, China and Pakistan. All these will be looked into with regard to their effectiveness and overall influence on the people’s mind. Governments have often taken actions to ban such activities subject to the internal unrest and policies which they feel should be prolonged. The citizens on the other hand take them for oppressive measures and thereby in revolt make use of all the means that are available to them. Turkey saw severe uprising by the citizens in the recent times. Since they were directed towards the government policies and opposition against it, this in turn led to the resentment amongst the government ranks and they prevented the news of the protestors from reaching the international platforms, and also on the local television channels. Twitter came up to the rescue of the protestors and it was used as the standout platform for the protestors who used it as a platform to not reach out to the fellow members in the different parts of the country, they also allowed the protestors to spread the world abroad on international

Breaking the Glass Ceiling in Corporate America Research Paper

Breaking the Glass Ceiling in Corporate America - Research Paper Example Also, in Fortune 500 companies only 15 women are present in leadership positions. Black CEOs are even fewer in number, while Hispanics and Blacks constitute 5 to 10% of a renowned law firm’s associates of first year. They also account for only 2% of such firms as partners (Gilgoff 2009). A lot of employers are working to alter these statistics. They are working together with retirement specialists of minority groups who offer help in improving minority professionals to hold leadership positions. Also, prominent business schools are doing the same by including more minorities in leadership positions. A lot more employers in the private and public sectors are coming up with internal strategies to get minorities into senior positions. Within four years, the number of companies that apply to be in the annual magazine, Diversity Inc. ‘Top 50 Companies for Diversity’ column has tripled to over 400. This magazine requires that the minority groups are represented; in orde r, for a company to be considered in the rankings. Also, a lot of companies have come to the realization that minority representation is necessary for any profit making organization. This means that companies working to narrow the gap of minority leaders are not doing so as an act of social justice; rather, they want to improve their rankings (Gilgoff, 2009). It is a challenge to any company to try and maintain a workforce that is diverse. A report compiled recently by the Korn/Ferry International recruiting firm established that U.S. companies are losing $64 billion annually by replacing employees that they lose due to diversity management failing. Also, shortage of leaders in minority groups is presenting... A lot of employers are working to alter these statistics. They are working together with retirement specialists of minority groups who offer help in improving minority professionals to hold leadership positions. Also, prominent business schools are doing the same by including more minorities in leadership positions.   A lot more employers in the private and public sectors are coming up with internal strategies to get minorities into senior positions.   Within four years, the number of companies that apply to be in the annual magazine, Diversity Inc. ‘Top 50 Companies for Diversity’ column has tripled to over 400. This magazine requires that the minority groups are represented; in order, for a company to be considered in the rankings. Also, a lot of companies have come to the realization that minority representation is necessary for any profit making organization. This means that companies working to narrow the gap of minority leaders are not doing so as an act of soc ial justice; rather, they want to improve their rankings (Gilgoff, 2009).It is a challenge to any company to try and maintain a workforce that is diverse. A report compiled recently by the Korn/Ferry International recruiting firm established that U.S. companies are losing $64 billion annually by replacing employees that they lose due to diversity management failing. Also, shortage of leaders in minority groups is presenting great challenges. Minority employees are against working in companies that top jobs seen to be off limits (Gilgoff, 2009).

The Industrial Revolution Refer to side notes below Essay

The Industrial Revolution Refer to side notes below - Essay Example The so-called Industrial Revolution was indeed one of the most transformative events in human history. Starting in a small area of England and then spreading through the country, on to the rest of Europe and hence to much of the world, the growth in industrial methods of production would have profound influence upon lives throughout the world. While there is virtually unanimous agreement on the influence of the changes that occurred, there is more debate upon their causes and how they should be characterized. Those that affirm the "revolution" aspect of this industrial change concentrate upon the rapidity of development and the influence of individual men such as Thomas Watt and his steam engine. Historians who criticize such characterizations claim that the industrial change occurred in a more complex manner. The exact causes and even dates of the Industrial Revolution have been constantly debated by historians, and this effects whether they see it as a "revolution" or not. For example, Lewis Mumford (1971) suggests that its origins are in fact in the Middle Ages with the printing press as an archetype for modern industrialization. The monasteries that had kept learning alive after the Romans also insisted upon a regularized timetable throughout the day, again, according to Mumford, a precursor of the Industrial Revolution's factories. ... They see it as stemming from post Civil War changes in Britain in which national borders were meaningful and so the spread of disease through population movements was limited (Cipolla, 1994). This in turn led to a lowering of infant mortality and an increase in population. A larger population was an essential precursor to industrialization as it required both a big workforce and an adequate market size for its goods. Cipolla also suggests that the agricultural revolution in Britain, with the enclosure of land and more efficient food production techniques, led to labor being forced into cities. This growth in cities provided the workforce and market in which the industrial revolution could occur. However, the actual period of industrial change within England (which spread to the rest of the world within decades) did occur in a relatively short period between 1780-1830. While the factors suggested by the authors already discussed were important catalysts the actual period of change was very rapid and created conditions in which technology developed on an almost yearly basis. One of the most important aspects of this change was the sheer number of inventions and industrial developments that occurred in a very short period of time and within a concentrated geographical area. England is a very small country by most standards, being 200 miles at its broadest and only about 400 miles long. When an invention appeared in one place it was easy for it to be transported to another and to influence developments there. The Industrial Revolution can be characterized as a period of intense cross-fertilization of ideas, industrial developments and changes. Thomas Watt's steam engine led to mechanized machines.

Behavior Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Behavior - Case Study Example In general, Clawson begins by talking about insecurities about self and the world around that start to develop when individuals do not get what they expect and/or are used to (p.3). Childhood experiences have a deep impact on individuals’ behavior and expectations. When individuals do not get what they believe is their right, it affects them negatively. To understand people for the way they behave, this article explains that most of the times behavior is defined by the individual’s experiences of their childhood. The learning obtained from this aspect is that it is not required for one to feel offended or betrayed because of somebody’s behavior that was not as expected; instead, it would be better to understand why that person behaved the way he/she did. It is more often due to some problems or challenges the other person might be facing, which he/she is unable to express. These problems are being referred to as â€Å"holes† in personality by Clawson (p.3) . Clawson further adds that it is important to move on instead of clinging to the issues that left us dissatisfied. When we decide to move on, we free our mind of negative thoughts and feelings, which is important for our wellbeing. Clawson talks about memes, which can have significant impact on our beliefs. Memes are mental building blocks that determine our behavior as they shape our beliefs; however, these memes are temporary. So, it is important to identify memes and not allow these memes to affect relationships because of their impact on persons’ behavior. A very important learning in general is that our actions or reactions to the happenings around us are purely because of our choice and are not because of any external influence (p.9). So, if we choose to be happy we can, and if we choose to be negative affected by the circumstances, we can. So, all negative feelings are because of our own choice, which can be controlled through thoughtful approach to the difficult time s of life. Our personal set of Values, Assumptions, Beliefs and Expectations (VABE) determine our view of the world and circumstances rather than the reality of the circumstances. These VABEs vary with every individual, culture, country and religion. These VABEs determine the behavior of individuals (Clawson, p.14). In a family, it is important to learn that what we learn and experience as children, up to an age of 10, determine our values in later life even if the situations completely change. So, it becomes important as to what the parents, guardians, teachers etc instil in children through behavior and observation that would eventually determine their life values. Moreover, it is important to keep in mind that our behavior is influenced by our actions, thoughts, feelings and physiology (p.10). Memes are also important because these memes will have a significant impact on children’s beliefs and behavior. Family is the first source of memes in an individual’s life and determine the lifestyle (Renshaw, p.11). Clawson’s article provides numerous points of learning for leaders. Firstly, leaders have the responsibility of influencing and motivating followers towards accomplishing a desired task (Pierce, p.257). In these contexts, for leaders, Clawson (p.5) justifies that it would be ideally impossible to effectively lead with expectations of being able to completely influence their followers. This is because all individuals’

The Industrial Revolution Refer to side notes below Essay

The Industrial Revolution Refer to side notes below - Essay Example The so-called Industrial Revolution was indeed one of the most transformative events in human history. Starting in a small area of England and then spreading through the country, on to the rest of Europe and hence to much of the world, the growth in industrial methods of production would have profound influence upon lives throughout the world. While there is virtually unanimous agreement on the influence of the changes that occurred, there is more debate upon their causes and how they should be characterized. Those that affirm the "revolution" aspect of this industrial change concentrate upon the rapidity of development and the influence of individual men such as Thomas Watt and his steam engine. Historians who criticize such characterizations claim that the industrial change occurred in a more complex manner. The exact causes and even dates of the Industrial Revolution have been constantly debated by historians, and this effects whether they see it as a "revolution" or not. For example, Lewis Mumford (1971) suggests that its origins are in fact in the Middle Ages with the printing press as an archetype for modern industrialization. The monasteries that had kept learning alive after the Romans also insisted upon a regularized timetable throughout the day, again, according to Mumford, a precursor of the Industrial Revolution's factories. ... They see it as stemming from post Civil War changes in Britain in which national borders were meaningful and so the spread of disease through population movements was limited (Cipolla, 1994). This in turn led to a lowering of infant mortality and an increase in population. A larger population was an essential precursor to industrialization as it required both a big workforce and an adequate market size for its goods. Cipolla also suggests that the agricultural revolution in Britain, with the enclosure of land and more efficient food production techniques, led to labor being forced into cities. This growth in cities provided the workforce and market in which the industrial revolution could occur. However, the actual period of industrial change within England (which spread to the rest of the world within decades) did occur in a relatively short period between 1780-1830. While the factors suggested by the authors already discussed were important catalysts the actual period of change was very rapid and created conditions in which technology developed on an almost yearly basis. One of the most important aspects of this change was the sheer number of inventions and industrial developments that occurred in a very short period of time and within a concentrated geographical area. England is a very small country by most standards, being 200 miles at its broadest and only about 400 miles long. When an invention appeared in one place it was easy for it to be transported to another and to influence developments there. The Industrial Revolution can be characterized as a period of intense cross-fertilization of ideas, industrial developments and changes. Thomas Watt's steam engine led to mechanized machines.

205 Finals Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

205 Finals - Coursework Example Texas is a good example of a state in which the control of guns has lead to drastic reduction in the number of crimes. Since the early 1990s, the crime rate has dropped by around 50 percent (LaRosa, 2002). Some bias exist in this article, there are incidences where the author agrees that guns control assist in the prevention of violent crimes and there other where the author totally disagrees. Some of the examples given are biased like the one on Washington, D.C. The author states that the murder rate has increased by 134% while the overall crime rate has reduced by around 2 percent. The politicians blame the Virginia’s less strict gun control laws for the murders witnessed in D.C. The author further states that Virginia Beach, the largest city in Virginia has the lowest rates of murder (LaRosa, 2002). The same passage discussed above is vague and does not provide full details. Other areas where the statements are vague are the example given on Texas State. Crime rate is said to have reduce significantly since the adoption of the concealed carry laws. The information provided only covers the overall decline and does not give much detail on how the concealed carry laws worked for the state. The source of the information is credible. The author provides an idea of how the gun control prevents the occurrence of violent crimes. It provides the history, arguments for and against gun control and examples concerning the topic. Rhetorical devices used are examples; examples are given throughout the article. There are fallacies in the article, â€Å"people who obey gun-control laws are less able to defend themselves against those who don’t obey those same laws† (LaRosa, 2002, par 17). The statement is a lie because those who obey the gun control laws can still be able to defend themselves. This is because they can obtain permits that legally allow them to carry guns.

Italian and German Unification Essay Example for Free

Italian and German Unification Essay During the years from 1858 to 1871 Italy and afterward Germany emerged as unified countries with one constitution and changed the path of history in Europe and consequently the whole world by shifting and changing or in many cases simply disturbing the balance of power not only in Europe but in the world. Both incidents were the direct results of various nationalist movements in both countries which share similarities and have differences in the basic ideologies behind them and the methods undertaken by their political leaders who made the unifications possible. In Italy the unification movement was lead by Conte di Camillo Benso Cavour (1810-61), who was the prime minister of the government of Piedmont-Sardinia, a constitutional monarchy. Cavour was a nobleman with liberal ideas while the leader of the German unification Prince Otto Edward Leopold von Bismarck, (1815-1898), the chancellor of Prussia, a conservative and absolutist monarchy was a Junker (German noble landowners) and a fanatical conservative. (Merriman Ch. 17) Yet, not only the difference in situations surrounding the social and political life both in Italian and German lands in internal and international stages at the time of unifications, but the differences between the social and political background of these two leaders and their very own way of thinking and ideologies made their methods and the paths of unifications of their homelands different from one another. This paper will discuss the similarities and differences in the methods undertaken by both leaders to achieve unification and to some extent the results of the two incidents. Further it will weigh the promises for democratization against the potential strengths or shortcomings of national unification in these countries. The very first characteristic of both movements that attracts one’s attention is the fact that both goals were achieved by the means of military and political manipulations and maneuvers, although ironically enough, the early attempts made to unify the states under a same flag both in German and Italian lands were made by liberals and in many cases even republicans who in fact gave birth to the modern idea of unified Germany and unified Italy. But all the attempts made by liberals and republicans in the way of Italian and German causes either by political and peaceful means or through revolts and revolutions were total failures and almost all of them ended up in disasters for their leaders and in many cases for every-day average person. As Germany, Italy was characterized â€Å"by the slow and late public emergence of the bourgeois politics and by an accentuated localism both in the collective expectations and social relationships. † (Caglioti) As an example of political and peaceful attempts made by more moderate liberals one can point to the Parliament of Frankfurt which desperately but unsuccessfully tried to force the rulers of the fragmented German states to come together and unify under the rule of Hohenzolern dynasty during the revolutions of 1848-49, and as an example of more radical turn of the unification movements one can look at the revolution of 1848-49 in Italy in which nationalist radical currents along with republican followers of Mazzini conducted revolts against the Habsburg rule and their military presence as well as conservative local rulers of fragmented so called â€Å"Italian† states throughout the peninsula and northern states which ended up in defeat for revolutionaries in the hands of Austrian armies and local conservative forces. (Smith Ch. II) These defeats however, were inspirations for both Bismarck and Cavour to implement the idea of a unified Germany and a unified Italy by means other than peaceful and â€Å"pure political† activities, which had been proven impracticable and incompetent in earlier stages. In other words, although both Bismarck and Cavour were politicians and set the stage for their goals by genus political maneuvers, the final fate of unification both in Italian and German cases were in hands of military and both leaders used military and warfare extensively to settle their word with their opponents. The use of military and warfare not only came to help to prevent the outside opposition to unification cause from destroying it, but it provided both leaders with a very powerful and practical means to strangle any inside opposition conducted either by their political and ideological opponents or the petty rulers of the fragmented states both in Italian and German lands who were the natural claimants and/or opponents to the unification cause. (Merriman Ch. 17) And another ironic fact about the unification attempts made by Cavour and Bismarck is the fact that, although they were trying to unify Germany and Italy under the rule of monarchies with conservative themes, and in the form of very centralized powers and autocratic states. And in case of the government of Prussia even absolutist and totalitarianist, there were very few oppositions and objections to the path of unifications taken by Bismarck and Cavour by liberals and even republicans who in fact opposed and challenged the very existence of the conservative state of Piedmont- Sardinia and the kingdom of Prussia and that in turn had its roots in the fact that liberals and their more radical republican and democrat colleagues were disillusioned by the results of the 1848-49 revolutions and previous attempts made to unify Germany and Italy. (Merriman Ch. 17) The belief of â€Å"Revolution from the bottom†, referred to by radical liberals and republicans were being replaced by the theory of â€Å"Reform from the top† mainly celebrated by moderate conservatives and of course the fact that all those liberals and republicans who were potential opponents to the unification under a conservative rule, were true patriots and all of them were greatly affected by the ideologies of nationalism, if they were not categorized directly as nationalists and that stopped them from opposing to Bismarck and Cavour since in a sense they were all moving towards a same goal when it came to unifying their homelands.

Study on the A Not B Error

Study on the A Not B Error After being discovered by Jean Piaget in 1954 perseveration tasks became one of the main means of investigation in cognitive development psychology, initially in children and later also in non-human animals. The most known of these is the, so called, A-not-B task, which even after many years of research still elicits debates about its underlying mechanisms. This paper aims to provide a review of existing empirical data in order to answer questions of who and why makes the A-not-B error. The first section of the review will give a theoretical background by describing the classic task used by Piaget, the importance of such experiments. This will provide a clear picture of what the A-not-B error is. The two following parts will focus on the questions of who makes the error and why, by an analysis of a set of classic experiments. Each study will be analyzed in terms of its goals, results, and what the impact of these findings is. The last part will include general conclusions based on st udies analyses from previous parts. In order to answer the questions stated in the review title, what is the A-not-B error, who makes it, and why?, classic data will be analyzed in order to determine what the best candidates for explanation of the mechanisms responsible for the error are (in the classic A-not-B task). The most convincing hypothesis will be chosen based on its explanatory power (can it explain most of the existing data?) and its relation to other approaches (can it incorporate other ideas?). Publication of the book The Construction of Reality in the Child in 1954 marks the beginning of research on perseverative tasks in infants. The author, Jean Piaget, described many hide and seek games, invented in order to investigate the understanding of permanence of objects in infants and its changes in time. One of these games became one of the most widely used to explore infant cognition, the A-not-B task. The classic example of its procedure involved a 9 and a half month old child called Laurent. Piaget placed him on a sofa and presented him with two hiding covers, one on the right, and one on the left. Then, he placed his watch under the cover A, and observed Laurent lift the cover to retrieve the watch. After this hiding and seeking was repeated several times, Piaget hid his watch under the cover B. Laurent watched this action attentively, but when given a choice searched back at the location A. As the author put it, at the moment the watch has disappeared under the garment B, he [Laurent] turns back toward coverlet A, and searches for the object under the screen. From this wrong choice, Piaget concluded that Laurent did not understand the independence of objects from his own actions on them. Since these initial results, the A-not-B error has been continuously studied and proven to be a strong and universal phenomenon in human infancy. However, the underlying mechanisms are still being debated, why the error happens and what it means. What is clearer, are the crucial elements of the task to produce the A-not-B error (Smith, 1999). In the original procedure an infant sits in front of two hiding locations that are highly similar and separated by a small distance. While the infant watches, an attractive object (for example a toy) is hidden in one of the locations, described as A. After a delay (which can vary), the infant is allowed to search for the object by reaching to one of the two hiding locations. This hiding and seeking is repeated several times, af ter which the object is hidden again, but this time in location B. Again, after a delay the infant searches for the object. In this traditional method, 8 to 10 month old infants keep reaching back to the initial location A, thus making the A-not-B error. More recent data suggests that there might be also other important elements of the experiment, including posture of an infant, social context, or who the person interacting with subjects is. Before proceeding to a more detailed analysis of existing A-not-B task data, the significance of such research will be briefly described. Investigations of A-not-B task are important for a couple of reasons. Firstly, it provides a clear paradigm to explore the development of infant cognition, how it changes in time. More specifically, it allows investigation how different processes involved in finding the object interact (such as looking, discriminating locations, posture control, and motor planning). Secondly, it also allows comparative experiments when the task is administered to nonhuman animals. Such research allow comparisons of cognitive abilities of different species and how these abilities might have evolved from common ancestors. However, after many years of research there is still no consensus on what is the meaning of the error and what its developmental importance is. The question of what the A-not-B error is has already been answered. The next question is about who makes the error. An answer to this question will be approached by analyzing a selection of studies on the A-not-B tasks which investigated human infants (Homo sapiens), rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris). The predominant group of participants checked on the A-not-B task are human infants of different ages. Diamond and Goldman-Rakic (1989) investigated extensively how the age of infants and the length of delay between observing and searching influences the commitment rate of the error. The experimental procedure was based on the original task, designed by Piaget. However, several differences were also introduced. Instead of sitting freely, infants were held sitting on their parents lap, prevented from turning or looking at the hiding location during the delay. Care was taken to ensure that the infant was observing the whole hiding process. In order to prevent visual fixation on correct hiding location, the infants were distracted by the experimenter calling them and counting aloud. Correct reaches were rewarded by gaining the hidden object (an attractive toy). In a case of an incorrect reach, the experimenter showed the right choice by uncovering the object, but did not allow the infan t to reach for it. Testing for A-not-B began immediately after the infant first uncovered a hidden toy from one of the hiding places. Different lengths of delays between hiding and searching were introduced to the procedure to check what the crucial time to commit the error was. The first introduced delay was a 2 second one. Most infants below 8-8.5 months of age made the A-not-B error at these or smaller delays, whereas only one infant above 11 months did so. The second delay was 5 seconds. By 8.5 months only half of infants made the error at delays of 5 +/- 2 seconds. By 9.5 months half of the infants required delays greater than 5 seconds for the error to appear. The last experimental delay was 10 seconds, where no infant below 8.5 months had passed, whereas by 12 months the average delay needed to be longer than 10 seconds. An interesting observation from this experiment is that infants who maintained visual fixation on the correct hiding location also reached correctly, while t hose who shifted their gaze, failed to do so (performed at chance levels). Another interesting fact is that infants tried to correct themselves when they made the A-not-B error (but not in the youngest ages). To sum up, the A-not-B error occurs in human infants at delays of 2-5 seconds at 7.5-9 months, and at delays greater than 10 seconds after one year. These findings also are consistent with studies conducted by Gratch and Landers (1971) and Fox et al. (1979) which both found that infants of 8 months made the error at a delay of 3 seconds, as well as with a study by Millar and Watson (1979) which showed that infants of 6-8 months could avoid the error when there was no delay, but committed it with delays as brief as 3 seconds. This last finding corresponds closely with Diamond and Goldman-Rakic who found that infants of 8 months will succeed on A-not-B task if there is no delay, but that they will also fail at delays of 3 seconds. Diamond and Goldman-Rakic used the same procedure to investigate ten rhesus monkeys with prefrontal lesions in comparison to monkeys with different brain lesions (parential), and ones with brains intact. Only animals with the prefrontal lesions committed the A-not-B errors at different delay lengths. There was no significant difference in performance between unoperated and parentially lesioned monkeys. Their age ranged from 2 to 6 years. At the delay of 2 seconds, all monkeys with prefrontal lesions committed the error. At the delay level of 5 second results were similar, all monkeys with prefrontal lesions committed the error. At the delay of 10 seconds the performance of prefrontal animals did not meet criteria for the error (such as at least one error in the reversed trial, the error at least once repeated during the same trial), exactly like human infants below 9 months. Behaviour of prefrontally damaged monkeys was noted to be very similar to that of human infants described befo re. The last research analyzed in order to provide an answer to the question of who commits the A-not-B error was conducted by Topà ¡l et al. (2009) on dogs, wolves, and human infants. In a series of experiments a behavioural analogy between human infants and dogs was found. The goal of the research was to investigate the functional nature of dogs sensitivity to communicative cues in a comparative framework, by the use of the A-not-B task. In one of the experiments dogs were shown to be influenced by the communicative context in their perseverative erroneous searches for hidden objects at a previously repeatedly baited (with a toy) location A, even when they observed the object being hidden at a different location (B). Such results are highly similar to those found in human infants. The task involved looking for a hidden object that the dogs saw being hidden behind one of two identical screens. The first phase consisted of the dog being allowed to repeatedly fetch the object (toy) from behind of the screens (location A). In the test phase, the experimenter hid the toy behind the alternative screen B. Dogs managed to fetch the hidden object correctly in all screen A trials. The main result from the test phase is that dogs in the social-communicative trial (the hider attracted the dogs attention) committed the A-not-B error more often than animals in the non-communicative (hiding with experimenters back turned toward the dog) or non-social (experimenter stayed still while the object was moved between screen by another experimenter, not visible to the dog) version. Additionally, animals in the non-social condition were significantly more successful than chance during the test phases. To sum up, the error was eliminated when the hiding events were not accompanied by communicative signals from experimenters. Dogs were shown to be influenced by the communicative context in their perseverative erroneous searches for hidden objects at the previously repeatedly baited loca tion A, even when they observed the object being hidden at a different location B. Such results are highly similar to those found in human infants. Thus, the A-not-B error was proven to also exist in dogs. Naturally this analysis does not exhaust all existing research on perseverative tasks. However, the aim of this review is to focus on A-not-B error only, in its classic version designed by Piaget. Other species, investigated in different variants of perseverative error tasks, included chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata), cotton-top tamarin monkeys (Saguinus oedipus) (Hauser, 1999), as well as magpies (Pica pica) (Gà ³mez, 2005). After the data of who makes the A-not-B error was summarized, an analysis of the underlying mechanisms should follow, to answer the question of why the error is made. In literature different hypotheses are present. Principal of these include areas such as object permanence, memory deficits, information bias, immaturity of prefrontal cortex, and action oriented responses (reaching). The first explanation was provided by the author of the A-not-B task himself, based on his initial research on perseverative errors. Piaget attributed this error to a lack of conception of object permanence in human infants. In his view infants commit the error because they do not understand that an object continues to exist even when out of sight. Their reach back to location A is therefore seen as an attempt to bring that object back to existence. This is the first, historical explanation, which has been disproved by various studies. For example, Baillargeon (1987) has shown that some young infants (3.5-4.5 months) might have some understanding of object permanence. When watching possible (a screen rotating and stopping at a box behind it) and impossible events (a screen rotating as though there was no box behind it), infants looked longer at the impossible ones, which can be understood that they were not expecting them to happen. Similar results were also reported by Ahmed and Ruf fman (1998), where infants who made the A-not-B error in search tasks looked significantly longer at impossible events than possible ones in a non-search version of the task. Such behaviours required a comprehension that when objects are out of sight, they continue to exist. Infants did not expect the object to be retrieved from a wrong place and therefore they had to understand in some sense where the object was actually located. Such results call into question Piagets claims about the age at which object permanence emerges. An alternative explanation focused on memory as a factor responsible for the error occurrence. In her research, Diamond (1985) found that different delay lengths between hiding and object searching affected the rate of the error. Thus the conclusion was that the recall memory was causing the A-not-B error. However, such view was challenged by Butterworth (1977), who found that use of transparent covers in hiding locations does not decrease the error rates, which is inconsistent with the recall hypothesis. Seeing an object underneath a cover should create no need of using the recall memory and lead to the error not being committed, which did not happen. This study also can be used to argue against the hypothesis that competition between different kinds of memory is responsible for the error. Harris (1989; after: Ahmed Ruffman, 1998) proposed that infants make the A-not-B error because of two memory traces in combination with poor attention. In this view, information about the object at location A is held in the long-term memory, whereas information about the object at new location B is kept in a weaker short-term memory. However, the fact that infants continue to make the error even when provided with clear cues of the object location (transparent covers), suggests that the underlying cause is not related to memory issues. Another classic explanation placed the difficulty on the encoding of information. Bjork and Cummings (1984) suggested that encoding at new location B requires more processing (is more complex) than encoding repeated location A because B must be distinguished from A. Sophian and Wellman (1983) also referred to information selection, where prior information was mistakenly selected over the new information about location B because infants forgot current information (which relates strongly to the short-term memory limitations) or because infants did not know that current information should take over. These findings again can be debated in light of the transparent covers study by Butterworth (1977) and the violation-of-expectations study by Ahmed and Ruffman (1998). With the use of transparent covers, encoding new information does not pose major cognitive challenge since the desired object is visible all the time. The proposition of infants not knowing which information should precede is enough ambiguous in itself (what know means in this context, do adults know which information from their environment should be the most valid one?) and is additionally contradicted by the findings that infants look longer at unexpected retrieval of objects from old locations. Therefore, they behave as though they know where the object is currently hidden. All of the hitherto presented hypotheses have met their nemesis data. At this point, two major explanations of the A-not-B error will be presented that yielded wider acceptance. One of them, supported by neuropsychological literature, is the importance of the prefrontal cortex, especially its relation with perseveration and inhibition. The prefrontal cortex is an anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain, which is often associated with planning behaviours, decision making, and moderating social behaviour. As Hauser (1999) states it, the act of perseveration (a repeated production of particular action or thought) often represents the consequence of a particular cognitive problem, related to inhibition. In order to prevent perseveration such mechanism is required to reject some alternatives while favouring others, which may involve activation of the prefrontal cortex (Kimberg et al., 1997). Infants, therefore, are highly susceptible to the commitment of the A-not-B error because of their immature prefrontal cortex. The research by Diamond and Goldman-Rakic (1989) provided the first evidence that A-not-B performance depends upon the integrity of the prefrontal cortex and that maturation of this region underlies improvements in the task performance in human infants between 7.5 and 12 months of age. Further support comes from other groups of subjects of this study. Monkeys with lesions in the prefrontal cortex also committed the error, whereas monkeys with brains left intact, managed to choose the correct location B. As the authors noticed, the A-not-B task performance of operated monkeys and 7.5-9 month old human infants was highly comparable (both groups made errors at delays of 2-5 seconds). This significance of the prefrontal cortex can be explained by analyzing two main abilities required for the error to occur, which depend upon the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex: temporal separation and inhibition of dominant response (Diamond Goldman-Rakic, 1989). The A-not-B task requires subjects to relate two temporally separate events: hiding cue and searching action. With no delay between hiding and searching even 7.5-9 month old human infants and prefrontally operated monkeys can manage to choose the correct location B. However, even when a brief delay (2-5 seconds) is introduced, they start to fail in object searching. Therefore, the aspect of delay plays a crucial role in committing the A-not-B error. This disadvantage can be overcome when subjects are allowed to maintain visual fixation or body orientation towards the new location during the delay. A similar effect is created by a visible cue which consistently indicates the correct choice (for example a mark on one of the locations). Those two findings indicate a possible involvement of short and long-term memory in the process of committing the error. In the case of fixation on the correct choice, a representation of this choice does not have to be held in short-term memory, and in th e case of learning an association between a landmark and a reward, the long-term memory is activated, guiding reaching behaviour accordingly. This brings back the argument about the role of memory in explaining the A-not-B error. The second ability stemming from the prefrontal cortex, the inhibition of dominant response, is mostly related to the act of reaching for the hidden object. In the A-not-B task subjects are first repeatedly awarded for reaching to location A, which leads to strengthening of this response. However, such conditioned tendency to reach to A must be inhibited in the test trial if the subject is to succeed and reach correctly to new location B. The fact that subjects reach back to location A even when they appear to know where the object is hidden (by looking there) or should know where the object is placed (transparent covers with visible toys), adds validity to the notion that inhibiting the conditioned response is difficult and that memory might not play a maj or role in explaining the error (the problem is not simply forgetting location of an object). Even when the object is hidden, human infants and operated monkeys will often immediately correct themselves if their initial reach was incorrect. It appears therefore that subjects know the object is hidden in location B but still cannot inhibit the initial response of reaching to the previously rewarded location A. However, human infants often look in the direction of the correct hiding place, even when simultaneously reaching to the wrong one. It seems that the act of reaching itself might cause troubles, which relates to the next major explanation of the A-not-B error. Smith et al. (1999) advocated a change in theoretical debates on possible explanations of the A-not-B error. Their explanation focuses on performance and behaviour during the task, which is described as reaching to successive locations in visual space. Errors are made by returning to an original location when the goal location had changed. Reaching to a place consists of a series of ordered steps, beginning with cognition (perceiving the target, forming a goal) and ending with action (selecting a motor pattern, forming a trajectory of the reach). The proposition states that the A-not-B error is mainly a reaching error, emerging from a directional bias to location A created by previous looking and reaching, and because the visual input available to guide the reaching hand is insufficient to overcome the bias (similar covers close to each other, not fully developed reaching skills of 8 to 10 month old infants). Crucial to this hypothesis is the idea of a continuous interaction between looking, reaching, and memory of previous reaches. In other words, it is important that there are two similar potential reaching targets and that infants have a history of repeatedly reaching to one of the locations. Results from experiments by Smith et al. experiments indicated that goal-directed reaches of infants stem from complex interactions of visual input, direction of gaze, posture, and memory (therefore indicating strong context effects). Such a system is inclined towards perseveration since it creates the reach based on current visual input and memories of recent reaches. This bias will prevail whenever the new information input is highly similar to previous reach information or whenever the systems memory of previous reaches is strong. Such an effect could be described as a version of a previously analyzed information bias. These general processes of goal-directed reaching are not specific to a particular moment in development, which suggests that older children and even adults are prone to commit the A-not-B error if placed in the appropriate situation. For example, when no visual cues are given, like in the case of hiding objects in sand (Spencer et al., 1997; after: Smith et al., 1999). However, if these processes are not specific to a certain age, why then a decline in making the error is observed? Authors point to two developmental changes that can contribute to an answer: increasing infants ability to discriminate among visually similar locations, and increasing skill in reaching. Although Smith et al. state that there is no discrepancy between their results and data from investigations of the role of the prefrontal cortex, they do not agree with the explanation placing emphasis on inhibition failure in this region of the brain. In such a view, infants reach successfully to the correct location not because a dominant habit to reach to A was inhibited, but because the current visual information biasing the system in the B direction is stronger than the previously conditioned action towards A. Therefore, direction of the infants reach depends on internal and external dynamics shaping the goal-directed action (outside stimuli and previous experience). The goal of this review was to answer the questions of what the classic A-not-B error is, who makes it, and for what reasons. The answer to the first two is a straightforward one. In order to determine who makes the error, it is enough to administer the original procedure devised by Piaget to various subjects (with slight modifications if used with nonhuman animals). The question of why the error is committed has a more complex nature. A range of proposed explanations have been presented, along with an analysis of how valid these hypotheses are in light of existing empirical data. Due to limitations of space, the review has focused on presenting a summary of the main hypotheses: object permanence, memory deficits, information bias, immaturity of prefrontal cortex, and goal-oriented reaching. The two latter possess the largest explanatory power, as they incorporate or explain elements of other approaches. The most important difference between them is present in the definition of who c an commit the error. In the neuropsychological approach only subjects with immature or a damaged neocortex will make the error, whereas in the reaching approach this error is not so limited. Another main difference concerns the concept of inhibition. Described as a main element of the influence of the neocortex on choosing the right location, it is removed completely from the reaching approach. However, certain similarities are also present, since the neuropsychological hypothesis includes the aspect of programming a goal-oriented reach. Considering these characteristics together, as the best candidate for an explanation of the A-not-B task the immaturity of the neocortex will be chosen. It can provide sufficient explanation for why human infants with immature prefrontal cortex, prefrontally damaged monkeys, and dogs make the error. In the case of the latter, the inhibition process might play the major part. Dogs committed the error mostly in the communicative experimental conditio n, which might suggest that overcoming a bias created that way is too difficult, inhibition in the prefrontal cortex (which is often assumed to organize social behaviour) is too weak. Of possible importance is the domestication process, during which dogs were selected to respond to human communicative signals. In terms of Marrs levels of explanation (Humpreys et at., 1994), the prefrontal cortex could be described as planning behaviours in order to act appropriately in the world (computational level), by the use of inhibition processes (algorithmic level) on the neuronal networks (implementional level). Additional empirical data, obtained in order to validate the prefrontal cortex hypothesis, should include studies on infant rhesus monkeys and other infant species, as well as autistic human children (due to their lack of social skills which could be attributed to malfunctioning prefrontal cortex). A set of such data would allow comparisons with existing findings. Naturally, new rese arch might bring a change of focus in mechanisms underlying the A-not-B error, as the issue of perseverative errors is a complex one and requires further investigation.